丙戊酸钠对APP/PS1双重转基因AD模型小鼠脑内老年斑和神经元的影响

目的 探讨丙戊酸钠 (valproic acid sodium salt,VPA)处理对淀粉样蛋白前体蛋白(β-amyloid precursor protein,APP)/早老素1(presenilin1,PS1)双重转基因阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease,AD)模型小鼠是否发挥神经保护作用.方法 对APP/PS1双重转基因AD模型种鼠交配后产下的子代进行基因分型,运用VPA 30 mg/(kg·d)和等量生理盐水腹腔注射APP/PS1双重转基因小鼠4周.药物处理后采用免疫组化、甲硫素S染色检测VPA对老年斑(senile plapues,SP)的影响,用Nissl染色、Tunel染色观察脑内神经元的变化,并采用ELISA定量检测小鼠脑内β-淀粉样蛋白(amyloid β peptide,Aβ)水平.结果 免疫组化及甲硫素S染色结果显示:VPA治疗组较生理盐水组的小鼠大脑皮质及海马区域的老年斑数量明显减少(t ＝ 7.78,P ＜ 0.01).Nissl染色发现VPA治疗组小鼠皮质及海马内的神经元数目较生理盐水组增加;Tunel染色显示VPA治疗组小鼠脑内凋亡神经元明显减少(t ＝ 5.95,P ＜ 0.01);ELISA结果提示VPA治疗组小鼠脑内Aβ40(t ＝ 4.23,P ＜ 0.01)和Aβ42(t ＝ 7.51,P ＜ 0.01)水平显著低于对照组.结论 VPA处理能显著减少AD模型小鼠减少脑内Aβ的沉积和老年斑的形成,通过减少神经元的凋亡来增加神经元的数量.     

加兰他敏抗β淀粉样蛋白的神经保护机制研究

目的观察加兰他敏(Gal)对β淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)损伤人神经母细胞瘤细胞(SH-SY5Y)后β淀粉样前体蛋白(APP)代谢通路的影响,探讨Gal的神经保护机制。方法采用5μMAβ_(1-40)作用于SH-SY5Y细胞制备体外细胞损伤模型,0.3μM加兰他敏对Aβ_(1-40)处理的细胞进行干预并与正常细胞进行对照研究。倒置显微镜下观察细胞形态,应用噻唑蓝比色法(MTT)检测细胞活力,Western-blot技术定量检测各组APP,sAPPα,β-淀粉样前体蛋白剪切酶-1(BACE1)表达水平。结果 Aβ_(1-40)孵育细胞24h之后,细胞损伤明显,存活率从95.78.±2.5%降到62.93±2.1%,与对照组相比差异显著(P0.01);Western-blot显示细胞内BACE1表达增加,APP表达无明显改变,细胞分泌sAPPα降低;在Aβ_(1-40)孵育之前给予加兰他敏作用24h,细胞损伤程度减轻,细胞的存活率上升(85.26±5.3%)(P0.01),细胞内BACE1表达较Aβ组下降,APP表达无明显改变,细胞分泌sAPPα升高。结论加兰他敏通过抑制Aβ_(1-40)诱导的APP的异常代谢发挥神经保护作用。     

阿尔茨海默病患者血小板淀粉样前体蛋白代谢的改变

目的 通过观察血小板活化后β淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)水平变化,探讨阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer disease,AD)患者血小板β-淀粉样前体蛋白(APP)代谢特点.方法 分离36例AD患者和30名健康对照的血小板,用免疫印迹检测凝血酶作用后的可溶性APP水平;同时用放射免疫法测定Aβ含量.结果 凝血酶作用后,血小板上清中可以检测到可溶性APP和Aβ.活化后AD患者血小板上清中可溶性APP水平较对照组水平下降31.0%(P＜0.05).凝血酶活化后,AD组血小板上清Aβ水平从(3.1±2.7)ng/L增加至(5.8±3.2)ng/L(P＜0.01),对照组Aβ水平由(6.1±4.4)ng/L增加为(11.5±5.9)ng/L(P＜0.01).AD组Aβ平均增加(2.8±2.1)ng/L,低于对照组增加水平(5.5±3.6)ng/L(P＜0.01).结论 血小板中含有APP的代谢产物可溶性APP和Aβ.AD血小板可能存在APP代谢异常.     

人羊膜间充质干细胞移植对阿尔茨海默病转基因小鼠的行为学和β-淀粉样蛋白的影响

背景：研究发现APP基因与阿尔茨海默病发病密切相关。β-淀粉样蛋白是阿尔茨海默病患者脑内老年斑的主要成分，基因突变和外界环境的影响能破坏β-淀粉样蛋白的动态平衡，从而引发或加速阿尔茨海默病的产生和发展。 目的：探讨人羊膜间充质干细胞尾静脉移植对阿尔茨海默病转基因小鼠学习记忆能力及脑组织β-淀粉样蛋白表达的影响。 设计、时间及地点：随机对照动物实验，于2008-05/10在郑州大学微生物学与免疫学教研室和河南省中医药治疗研究院完成。 材料：健康剖宫产产妇志愿捐献的羊膜，由郑州大学第一附属医院产科提供。APP转基因鼠29只，PCR技术鉴定转APP-基因小鼠9只，作为正常组；转APP+基因小鼠20只，随机分为细胞移植组、对照组，10只/组。 方法：无菌条件下体外分离培养人羊膜间充质干细胞，传至第3代将细胞浓度调整为1×109 L-1，经尾静脉注入0.5 mL至细胞移植组小鼠体内；对照组经尾静脉注入同体积的生理盐水；正常组小鼠不给予任何干预措施。 主要观察指标：采用Morris水迷宫测定小鼠逃避潜伏期、穿越平台次数及在平台象限的时间，刚果红染色观察小鼠脑组织内β-淀粉蛋白的表达。 结果：定位航行试验中，移植前与正常组比较，细胞移植组、对照组小鼠逃避潜伏期差异均有显著性意义（P < 0.05）；移植后2周细胞移植组小鼠逃避潜伏期与正常组基本相似（P > 0.05），但明显短于对照组（P < 0.05）。空间探索试验中，移植前后小鼠穿越平台次数及其在平台象限的时间3组间比较差异均无显著性意义（P > 0.05）。移植后1个月，正常组未见或仅见极少量的β-淀粉样蛋白沉积，细胞移植组淀粉样蛋白的沉积明显少于对照组。 结论：人羊膜间充质干细胞尾静脉移植能促进阿尔茨海默病转基因小鼠空间定位及学习记忆能力的提高，且减少小鼠脑内β-淀粉样蛋白的沉积。     

基质细胞衍生因子-1对阿尔茨海默病脑内可溶性Aβ清除作用的研究

目的通过对APP/PS1双转基因小鼠侧脑室持续注射基质细胞衍生因子-1(SDF-1),以观察SDF-1对脑内可溶性β淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)的影响及其可能的机制。方法将28周龄的野生型(wild type,WT)小鼠和APP/PS1转基因小鼠分为对照组和SDF-1α干预组,分别予以侧脑室注射SDF-1α和PBS,1周1次,连续注射4周和8周。采用ELISA法检测小鼠脑内可溶性Aβ的水平,采用Wsetern blot方法检测小鼠脑内小胶质细胞标志物Iba-1的水平。结果 SDF-1α侧脑室注射后APP/PS1小鼠脑内可溶性Aβ-40和Aβ-42水平与对照组相比明显减少,APP/PS1小鼠及WT小鼠脑内Iba-1水平较对照组增加。结论 SDF-1α侧脑室注射可能减少APP/PS1小鼠脑内可溶性Aβ的水平,其作用的机制可能是SDF-1α增加了脑内小胶质细胞由外周向中枢的募集,从而促进Aβ的吞噬清除。动员与趋化骨髓来源的小胶质细胞可能成为治疗AD的新靶点。     

血管性痴呆患者血浆中Aβ及Tau蛋白的检测分析

目的 探讨血浆中β淀粉样蛋白Aβ1-40、Aβ1-42越及过度磷酸化微管相关蛋白(Tau蛋白)对血管性痴呆(VD)的临床诊断意义.方法 VD患者组102例,其中男65例,女37例,年龄60～72岁,平均年龄65.8±5.8岁.根据MMSE量表划分VD患者严重程度,分为轻度(20～24分)43例,中度(10～19分)38例,重度(10分以下)21例.选取100例健康老年者作为对照组,其中男58例,女42例,年龄58～75岁,平均年龄64.2±6.7岁.两组间年龄、性别构成无统计学差异.均排除其他神经系统及其他系统和物质原因所致的痴呆.应用ELISA方法检测血浆Aβ1-40、Aβ1-42及Tau蛋白水平.结果 (1)VD患者血浆Aβ1-40、Aβ1-42浓度(105.2±5.6pg/ml,80.1±6.5pg/ml)与对照组(102.5±6.1pg/ml,78.1±7.2pg/ml)差异无显著性.VD患者血浆中Tau蛋白浓度(13.4±8.9pg/ml)明显高于对照组(5.2±4.1pg/ml)具有统计学意义(P<0.01).(2)随着病情加重VD患者血浆Aβ1-40、Aβ1-42浓度无显著性差异(轻度101.5±5.4pg/ml,79.2±6.2pg/ml;中度98.5±6.8pg/ml,78.6±6.5pg/ml;重度97.2±7.8pg/ml,77.2±8.1pg/ml).而血浆Tau蛋白浓度随着病情的加重有显著升高(轻度9.1±7.9pg/ml;中度14.1±6.7pg/ml;重度15.5±7.8pg/ml),尤其是中、重度痴呆组(P<0.001).结论 检测VD患者血浆中Aβ1-40、Aβ1-42浓度对诊断无意义,而Tau蛋白浓度的检测可以成为临床辅助诊断VD的生物学指标.     

EGCG通过NGF/TrkA通路影响APP/PS1小鼠脑内Aβ沉积的研究

目的探讨绿茶的有效多酚成分表没食子儿茶素没食子酸酯(EGCG)对淀粉样前体蛋白/早老素基因(APP/PS1)转基因小鼠脑内β-淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)沉积及其对海马内神经生长因子(NGF)相关神经生长因子受体(TrkA)信号通路的影响。方法采用免疫组化及Western blot法分别检测小鼠海马Aβ1-40、淀粉样前体蛋白(APP)的蛋白表达水平,Western blot检测小鼠海马NGF及神经生长因子前体(proNGF)的表达水平及其共同受体TrkA下游细胞外信号调节激酶(ERK)通路相关蛋白的表达水平。结果免疫组化结果显示,模型组小鼠海马内Aβ1-40和APP表达(42.35±8.25、143.63±24.30)较对照组(13.04±4.36、19.89±4.93)均显著增加(均P0.05),治疗组(19.72±6.55、38.07±18.19)较模型组明显降低(均P0.05)。Western blot结果显示,与对照组(均为100)比较,模型组小鼠海马内Aβ1-40、APP的相对表达量增加(分别为363.39±45.77、499.51±65.75,均P0.01),与模型组比较,治疗组Aβ1-40、APP相对表达量显著降低(分别为179.77±18.17、160.42±44.55,均P0.01)。与对照组(均为100)比较,模型组NGF(16.39±4.03)、pro-NGF(25.92±5.37)、NGF/pro-NGF(63.64±10.68)、p-TrkA(7.92±2.13)、p-c-raf(7.37±2.66)、p-ERK1/2(13.53±4.44)及pCREB(3.95±1.56)的相对表达量降低(均P0.05);与模型组比较,治疗组NGF(80.78±12.18)、pro-NGF(48.63±3.83)、NGF/pro-NGF(165.84±19.02)、p-TrkA(72.33±6.21)、p-c-raf(88.12±5.33)、p-ERK1/2(60.21±10.34)及p-CREB(25.31±8.48)的相对表达量明显增加(均P0.05)。治疗组与对照组上述指标比较差异均无统计学意义(均P0.05)。结论 EGCG主要通过上调NGF/proNGF比例,增加NGF的相对表达,继而激活其下游特异性TrkA通路,显著增加TrkA、c-raf、ERK1/2及其下游效应蛋白CREB的磷酸化水平,从而抑制Aβ1-40和APP的表达,改善学习记忆障碍,发挥神经保护作用。     

胰岛素降低糖尿病大鼠大脑皮质β-淀粉样蛋白含量的可能机制

目的探讨胰岛素降低糖尿病大鼠大脑皮质神经元中β淀粉样蛋白(amyloidbeta peptide,Aβ)的可能机制。方法雄性SD大鼠15只,随机分为正常对照组、糖尿病组、糖尿病+胰岛素组,每组5只。用链脲佐菌素建立糖尿病大鼠模型,用32P放射性配体结合实验检测3组大鼠大脑皮质神经元中糖原合酶激酶3(GSK3)的活性,酶联免疫吸附(ELISA)法检测Aβ的产量及Western blot检测淀粉样前体蛋白(APP)的表达。结果与对照组[GSK3(1.04±0.11),Aβ40(40.92±5.34)pg/μl,Aβ42(29.64±3.19)pg/μl,APP(1.05±0.08)]相比,糖尿病组GSK3活性(2.02±0.12)和Aβ生成[Aβ40(67.53±11.69)pg/μl,Aβ42(45.02±4.10)pg/μl]明显增加(P<0.01),APP(1.52±0.16)表达增加(P<0.05);应用胰岛素后能明显降低GSK3活性(1.21±0.17,P<0.01)和糖尿病大鼠大脑皮质Aβ[Aβ40(42.96±6.03)pg/μl,P<0.05;Aβ42(31.09±3.94)pg/μl,P<0.01]水平,但APP的表达(1.39±0.13)无明显改变。结论糖尿病大鼠皮质神经元Aβ生成增加,GSK3在这一过程中起着重要作用;胰岛素通过抑制GSK3可降低Aβ的生成。     

海风藤对β淀粉样蛋白寡聚体激活小胶质细胞的影响

目的 研究海风藤提取物对β淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)寡聚体诱导小胶质细胞激活的影响.方法 模拟体内生理条件诱导Aβ单体形成Aβ寡聚体,原代培养新生大鼠小胶质细胞,分别用Aβ25-35寡聚体、Aβ25-35寡聚体+海风藤提取物、Aβ25-35寡聚体+DMSO干预小胶质细胞,并设空白对照组,48 h后测上清液中白细胞介素1β(IL-1β)和白细胞介素6(IL-6)水平,并比较各组间炎性因子差异.结果 Aβ寡聚体组上清液中IL-1β、IL-6水平明显高于空白对照组[IL-1β:(67.06±1.79)pg/mL vs.(36.30±1.40)pg/mL;IL-6:(181.14±4.46) pg/mLvs.(110.90±4.62)pg/mL,均P＜0.05];Aβ寡聚体组上清液中IL-1β、IL-6水平明显高于Aβ寡聚体+海风藤提取物组[IL-1β:(63.24±2.00) pg/mL,IL-6:(170.34±3.47) pg/mL,P＜0.05];Aβ寡聚体组上清液中IL-1β、IL-6水平和Aβ寡聚体+DMSO组[IL-1β:(68.26±1.38) pg/mL,IL-6:(184,7±6.06) pg/mL]比较无统计学差异.结论 Aβ寡聚体能激活小胶质细胞;海风藤提取物能明显抑制Aβ寡聚体诱导小胶质细胞的激活.     

Aducanumab治疗减少阿尔茨海默病患者脑内β淀粉样蛋白沉积

阿尔茨海默病(AD)的主要病理表现包括:β淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)沉积形成的老年斑、神经元纤维缠结同时合并突触功能障碍及其他神经退行性病变。Aducanumab是一种选择性针对聚集态Aβ的人单克隆抗体。在AD转基因小鼠的基础实验中,aducanumab通过血脑屏障进入脑内,与脑实质内的Aβ结合,降低脑内可溶性及不可溶性Aβ,且呈剂量效应关系。临床试验中,在AD临床前驱期和轻度阶段,每月静脉滴注1次aducanumab,持续1年,能有效减少脑内Aβ,作用也呈剂量依赖性和时间依赖性,受试者的认知功能衰退速度也有所减缓,表现为简明精神状态量表(MMSE)及临床痴呆量表总分(CDR-SB)评分下降速度减缓。Aducanumab的安全性和耐受性的主要问题是Aβ相关的影像学异常(ARIA)。目前aducanumab治疗AD的Ⅲ期临床试验正在进行,如能证实其具有延缓AD认知功能衰退,将是Aβ学说的强有力支持。     

APP/PS1双转基因小鼠早期记忆功能障碍与胆碱能系统的关系研究

目的观察转APP/PS1基因阿尔茨海默病小鼠(APP/PS1小鼠)早期空间学习记忆功能及乙酰胆碱能系统的变化以及两者之间的相关性,探讨阿尔茨海默病早期学习记忆障碍的发病机制。方法应用Morris水迷宫法评定3月龄APP/PS1小鼠及相应野生型(WT)小鼠的空间学习记忆功能;采用免疫组织化学及组织化学染色方法检测脑组织中β-淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)斑块沉积情况;采用ELISA法检测脑组织中乙酰胆碱(ACh)含量以及胆碱乙酰转移酶(ChAT)和乙酰胆碱酯酶(AChE)活性,并探讨小鼠脑组织中ACh含量与其空间记忆能力、ChAT活性的相关性。结果水迷宫评定结果显示两组小鼠到达平台的潜伏期无统计学差异(P>0.05);APP/PS1小鼠在目标象限的游泳时间百分比〔(29.02±4.27)%〕和距离百分比〔(28.85±3.77)%〕较WT小鼠均下降(P<0.05)。APP/PS1小鼠脑组织中尚无Aβ斑块的沉积。APP/PS1小鼠脑组织中ACh含量〔(45.23±1.40)ng/g prot〕和ChAT活性〔(279.53±12.13)U/g组织湿重〕均较WT小鼠〔分别为(54.08±4.84)ng/gprot、(315.84±11.32)U/g组织湿重〕显著降低(P<0.05),两组小鼠脑组织中AChE活性无统计学差异(P>0.05)。小鼠脑组织中ACh含量与其空间记忆功能(目标象限航行时间百分比、目标象限航行路程百分比)呈正相关(r=0.861、r=0.874,P<0.05),ACh含量与ChAT活性呈正相关(r=0.926,P<0.05)。结论 APP/PS1小鼠空间记忆功能障碍、ACh含量减少和ChAT活性降低可发生于Aβ斑块沉积之前。脑组织中ACh含量减少和ChAT活性降低可能与APP/PS1小鼠记忆功能损害密切相关。     

Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 Alleviates Expression of Aβ<Subscript>1–40</Subscript> and α-, β-, and γ-Secretases in the Cortex and Hippocampus of APP/PS1 Double Transgenic Mice

To examine the effect of subcutaneous injection of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) on the expression of the amyloid protein (Aβ_1–40), α-secretase (ADAM10), β-secretase (BACE1), and γ-secretase (PS1) in APP/PS1 double transgenic mice. APP/PS1 double transgenic mice and wild-type mice were divided into wild-type group, wild-type therapy group, transgenome group, and transgenic therapy group. Subcutaneous injection of IGF-1 (50 μg/kg day) was administered once daily to the wild-type therapy group and transgenic therapy group for 8 weeks, respectively. The expression of the Aβ_1–40 in the cortex and hippocampus was detected by immunohistochemistry 8 weeks after administration. The levels of Aβ_1–40, DAM10, BACE1, and PS1 were analysed by Western blot. The expression of the Aβ_1–40 in the cortex of the gene therapy group was significantly lower than that of the transgenome group (p?<?0.05). In APP/PS1 double transgenic mice, BACE1 expression was markedly higher in both the hippocampus (p?<?0.001, p?=?0.00009) and the cortex (p?=?0.001), compared to that of the wild-type mice. The treatment of IGF-1 markedly reduced ADAM10 expression in the hippocampus in both transgenic mice and wild-type mice (p?<?0.05), whereas the treatment mainly decreased BACE1 expression in transgenic mice but not in the wild-type mice (p?<?0.05). No significant differences in PS1 levels were detected in all groups. IGF decreased Aβ_1–40 over-expression in the cortex and hippocampus and might inhibit the damage induced by Aβ_1–40 in APP/PS1 double transgenic mice. Our study suggests that IGF-1 should inhibit Aβ production through α-secretase and β-secretase but not γ-secretase.     

Transauricular Vagal Nerve Stimulation at 40 Hz Inhibits Hippocampal P2X7R/NLRP3/Caspase-1 Signaling and Improves Spatial Learning and Memory in 6-Month-Old APP/PS1 Mice

ObjectivesTransauricular vagal nerve stimulation (taVNS) at 40 Hz attenuates hippocampal amyloid load in 6-month-old amyloid precursor protein/presenilin 1 (APP/PS1) transgenic mice, but it is unclear whether 40-Hz taVNS can improve cognition in these mice. Moreover, the underlying mechanisms are still unclear.Materials and Methods6-month-old C57BL/6 (wild type [WT]) and APP/PS1 mice were subjected to 40-Hz taVNS. Novel Object Recognition and the Morris Water Maze were used to evaluate cognition. Hippocampal amyloid-β (Aβ)1-40, Aβ1-42, pro–interleukin (IL)-1β, and pro–IL-18 were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Hippocampal Aβ42, purinergic 2X7 receptor (P2X7R), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain–like receptor pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3), Caspase-1, IL-1β, and IL-18 expression were evaluated by western blotting. Histologic assessments including immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, Nissl staining, and Congo red staining were used to assess microglial phagocytosis, neuroprotective effects, and Aβ plaque load.Results40-Hz taVNS improved spatial memory and learning in 6-month-old APP/PS1 mice but did not affect recognition memory. There were no effects on the cognitive behaviors of 6-month-old WT mice. taVNS at 40 Hz modulated microglia; significantly decreased levels of Aβ1-40, Aβ1-42, pro–IL-1β, and pro–IL-18; inhibited Aβ42, P2X7R, NLRP3, Caspase-1, IL-1β, and IL-18 expression; reduced Aβ deposits; and had neuroprotective effects in the hippocampus of 6-month-old APP/PS1 mice. These changes were not observed in 6-month-old WT mice.ConclusionOur results show that 40-Hz taVNS inhibits the hippocampal P2X7R/NLRP3/Caspase-1 signaling and improves spatial learning and memory in 6-month-old APP/PS1 mice.     

加兰他敏对APP/PS1转基因小鼠海马区星形胶质细活化及C/EBPβ表达的影响

目的研究加兰他敏对APP/PS1转基因小鼠海马区星形胶质细胞活化、C/EBPβ表达及行为学的影响。方法选取10月龄雄性APP/PS1转基因小鼠20只,随机分为模型对照组(10只)和治疗组(10只),同月龄、同背景的C57BL/6野生型雄性小鼠10只作为正常对照组。治疗组皮下注射加兰他敏溶液5mg/kg,2次/d,连续治疗8周,正常对照组和模型对照组给予皮下注射等量生理盐水。应用Morris水迷宫实验于干预治疗8周后开始测定各组小鼠空间学习记忆能力,连续7d,采用免疫组织化学、免疫荧光及Western-blot方法观察各组小鼠海马区星形胶质细胞活化及C/EBPβ表达水平。结果与正常对照组相比,模型对照组和治疗组小鼠Morris检测第5、6天平均逃避潜伏期延长,穿越平台次数减少(P0.05,P0.05),而治疗组其逃避潜伏期较模型对照组缩短(P0.05),穿越平台次数增多(P0.05);同时治疗组小鼠星形胶质细胞活化被明显抑制,胶质纤维酸性蛋白(GFAP)的阳性表达面积〔(5.003±0.823)%〕及C/EBPβ的表达量(87.711±14.622)较模型对照组〔(7.116±1.040)%,119.920±16.901〕明显减少(P0.05,P0.05)。结论加兰他敏改善APP/PS1转基因AD小鼠的学习记忆能力可能与其抑制星形胶质细胞的活化及C/EBPβ的表达有关。     

Enhancement of the nonamyloidogenic pathway by exogenous NGF in an Alzheimer transgenic mouse model

Nerve growth factor (NGF) is an important nerve cell growth regulatory factor and has an indispensable role in the development, survival and regeneration of the cholinergic basal forebrain (CBF) neurons, and it has multiple targets when used for Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) therapy. In this study, we observed whether NGF can affect cholinergic neurons to change amyloid-β precursor protein (APP) metabolism process and reduce amyloidosis in AD brains. NGF was administered intranasally to APP/PS1 double-transgenic mice for 14 weeks. We observed an increase in APP695 and ADAM10 and a decrease in BACE1 and PS1 protein levels and, subsequently, a reduction in Aβ1–40 and Aβ1–42 levels and Aβ burden were present in NGF-treated mice brains, suggesting that NGF enhanced the APP nonamyloidogenic cleavage pathway and reduced the Aβ generation in the APP/PS1 transgenic mice brains.     

Hyperphosphorylated tau and paired helical filament-like structures in the brains of mice carrying mutant amyloid precursor protein and mutant presenilin-1 transgenes

Senile plaques composed mainly of beta-amyloid (Abeta) and neurofibrillary tangles principally composed of hyperphosphorylated tau are the major pathological features of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Despite the fact that increased expression of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and presenilin-1 (PS1) transgenes in mice lead to increased Abeta deposition in plaquelike structures in the brain, little is known about the nature and distribution of tau in these mice. Therefore the relationship between Abeta and hyperphosphorylated tau was investigated in mice carrying mutant APP and mutant PS1 transgenes using both light (LM) and electron microscopy (EM) with immunocytochemistry. LM immunocytochemistry revealed cerebral Abeta deposits to be present from 8 weeks of age, whereas hyperphosphorylated tau was not detected until 24 weeks of age, when it appeared as punctate deposits in close association with the Abeta deposits in the cortex and hippocampus. However, dystrophic neurites were not as heavily immunolabeled as they are in AD brain. EM revealed that aggregations of straight filaments (10-12 nm wide) were present in some cellular processes at the periphery of Abeta plaques in 8-month-old APP/PS1 mice. In one such mouse, single filaments and paired filaments showing a helical configuration (50-55 nm half-period, 25 nm max. width) were present in a dark, atrophic hippocampal neuron. Immunogold labeling of APP/PS1 mouse brain revealed hyperphosphorylated tau epitopes in some dystrophic neurites from 24 weeks of age that were similar to those present in AD. These results suggest that hyperphosphorylated tau appears in APP/PS1 mouse brain after the onset of Abeta deposition and although it is associated with Abeta deposits, its distribution is not identical to that in AD.     

Enhanced generation of intracellular Aβ42 amyloid peptide by mutation of presenilins PS1 and PS2

The accumulation of amyloid β‐peptide (Aβ) in the brain is a critical pathological process in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recent studies have implicated intracellular Aβ in neurodegeneration in AD. To investigate the generation of intracellular Aβ, we established human neuroblastoma SH‐SY5Y cells stably expressing wild‐type amyloid precursor protein (APP), Swedish mutant APP, APP plus presenilin 1 (PS1) and presenilin 2 (PS2; wild‐type or familial AD‐associated mutant), and quantified intracellular Aβ40 and Aβ42 in formic acid extracts by sensitive Western blotting. Levels of both intracellular Aβ40 and Aβ42 were 2–3‐fold higher in cells expressing Swedish APP, compared with those expressing wild‐type APP. Intracellular Aβ42/Aβ40 ratios were approximately 0.5 in these cells. These ratios were increased markedly in cells expressing mutant PS1 or PS2 compared with those expressing their wild‐type counterparts, consistent with the observed changes in secreted Aβ42/Aβ40 ratios. High total levels of intracellular Aβ were observed in cells expressing mutant PS2 because of a marked elevation of Aβ42. Immunofluorescence staining additionally revealed more intense Aβ42 immunoreactivity in mutant PS2‐expressing cells than in wild‐type cells, which was partially colocalized with immunoreactivity for the trans‐Golgi network and endosomes. The data collectively indicate that PS mutations promote the accumulation of intracellular Aβ42, which appears to be localized in multiple subcellular compartments.     

Impaired Performance of Female APP/PS1 Mice in the Morris Water Maze Is Coupled with Increased Aβ Accumulation and Microglial Activation

Background: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by progressive neuronal loss and cognitive decline. Epidemiological studies suggest that the risk of AD is higher in women even when data are adjusted for age. Objective: We set out to compare changes in 9-month-old male and female mice which overexpress amyloid precursor protein (APP) with presenilin (PS1; APP/PS1 mice) and to evaluate whether any changes were coupled with deficits in spatial learning. Methods: APP/PS1 mice were assessed for their ability to learn in the Morris water maze and Aβ burden assessed by Congo Red and Aβ triple ultrasensitive assay. Neuroinflammatory changes were examined in brain tissue along with expression of Aβ-generating and Aβ-degrading enzymes. Results: A deficit in reversal phase learning in the Morris water maze was observed in female mice and was paralleled by evidence of increased accumulation of Aβ, microglial activation and expression of IL-1β. Accumulation of Aβ was coupled with an increase in expression of BACE-1 and a decrease in insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE). Conclusion: The results indicate that the observed impairment in spatial memory in female APP/PS1 mice correlated with increased Aβ burden and the changes in Aβ may have occurred as a result of enhanced BACE-1 and decreased IDE expression.     

Alternations of central insulin‐like growth factor‐1 sensitivity in APP/PS1 transgenic mice and neuronal models

Although many post‐mortem studies have found evidence of central insulin resistance in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, results on changes of central insulin‐like growth factor‐1 (IGF‐1) signaling in the pathological process of AD remain controversial. In the present study, we observed the activation states of IGF‐1 downstream signaling in brain slices of transgenic mice carrying APPswe/PS1dE9 mutations (APP/PS1 mice) at both early and late stages (ex vivo) and further investigated the involvement of oligomeric β‐amyloid (Aβ) and Aβ‐enriched culture medium (CM) on IGF‐1 sensitivity employing neuronal models (in vitro). In 6‐ and 18‐month‐old APP/PS1 mice, the phosphorylations of IGF‐1 receptor (IGF‐1R) and Akt in response to IGF‐1 stimulation were significantly reduced in the hippocampal and cortical slices, whereas IGF‐1R protein expression and mRNA levels of IGF‐1 and IGF‐1R in the hippocampal slices were significantly higher than that in wild‐type mice. In agreement with these results, reduced IGF‐1 sensitivity was verified in APP and PS1 double stably transfected CHO cells; moreover, IGF‐1 stimulated phosphorylations of IGF‐1R and Akt were also markedly weakened by oligomeric Aβ or Aβ‐enriched CM posttreatment in CHO cells without APP/PS1‐transfected (K1 cells) and primary hippocampal neurons. These observations indicate that the impaired central IGF‐1 sensitivity at early and late stages of APP/PS1 transgenic mice might be attributable, at least partially, to the overproduced Aβ, especially the oligomeric Aβ. These findings may shed new light on the mechanisms underlying the defective IGF‐1 signaling in AD pathogenesis and provide important clues for AD drug discovery. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Reactive oxidative species enhance amyloid toxicity in APP/PS1 mouse neurons

Objective To investigate whether intracellular amyloid β (iAβ) induces toxicity in wild type (WT) and APP/PS1 mice, a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Methods Different forms of Aβ aggregates were microinjected into cultured WT or APP/PS1 mouse hippocampal neurons. TUNEL staining was performed to examine neuronal cell death. Reactive oxidative species (ROS) were measured by MitoSOXTM Red mitochondrial superoxide indicator. Results Crude, monomer and protofibrilAβ induced more toxicity inAPP/PS1 neurons than in WT neurons. ROS are involved in mediating the vulnerability of APP/PS1 neurons to iAβ toxicity. Conclusion Oxidative stress may mediate cell death induced by iAβ in neurons.