乏特氏乳头癌的诊断和治疗(附12例报告)

目的 探讨乏特氏乳头癌的诊断和治疗。方法 回顾性总结1985-1995年经手术及病理证实的12例乏特氏乳头癌的诊断和治疗经验。结果 12例患者术前影像学检查（B超、CT）均未能作出该病的直接诊断，而行纤维十二指肠镜检查的5例，均发现乳头肿瘤，活检证实4例为乳头腺癌，1例为乳头腺瘤（术后切片为腺瘤恶变），其余病例均在术中切开十二指肠降部行乳头肿块冰冻切片确诊，11例行胰十二指肠切除术，1例乳头部腺瘤癌变行乳头肿瘤局部切除术。结论 纤维十二指肠镜检查和ERCP有利于术前明确乏特氏乳头部肿瘤的诊断。     

胰头占位性病变的诊断与治疗

目的 总结胰头占位性病变的诊断与治疗经验.方法 回顾性分析2011年1月至2014年4月中国医科大学附属第一医院收治的247例胰头占位性病变患者的临床资料.术前均行胰腺增强CT和(或)胰腺MRI等影像学检查.血清学检查包括AFP、CA19-9、CA125、CEA,对于怀疑自身免疫性胰腺炎的患者检查血清IgG4.临床诊断为胰头癌、胰头肿块、肿块型胰腺炎的患者行术中病理学检查.胰头癌根据肿瘤的分期及浸润程度选择胰十二指肠切除术、扩大的胰十二指肠切除术或胆肠吻合和(或)胃肠吻合术.肿块型慢性胰腺炎在患者及家属充分了解并同意的前提下选择行保留十二指肠的胰头切除术或胰十二指肠切除术.胰腺良性及低度恶性肿瘤应在肿瘤完整切除的基础上尽量保留肿瘤周围的组织和器官,行个体化治疗.结果 胰头实性占位性病变194例,其中胰头癌125例、胰头肿块45例、肿块型慢性胰腺炎9例、自身免疫性胰腺炎11例,胰岛素瘤4例;胰头囊性占位性病变53例,其中黏液性囊腺瘤12例、浆液性囊腺瘤8例、胰腺囊肿17例、实性假乳头状瘤12例、导管内乳头状黏液瘤4例.病理学检查确诊胰腺癌的71例患者术前肿瘤系列检查阳性率分别为:AFP为7.0％ (5/71)、CA19-9为94.4％ (67/71)、CA125为42.3％(30/71)、CEA为0.12例肿块型慢性胰腺炎肿瘤系列检查阳性率分别为:AFP为1/12、CA19-9为4/12、CA125为1/12、CEA为0.119例患者进行手术治疗获得病理学诊断,其中胰头癌71例、肿块型慢性胰腺炎7例、胰岛素瘤4例、胰腺结核1例,黏液性囊腺瘤8例、浆液性囊腺瘤4例、胰腺假性囊肿6例、巨大淋巴管瘤1例、淋巴上皮囊肿1例、实性假乳头状瘤12例、导管内乳头状黏液瘤4例.247例胰头占位性病变患者中,61例行胰十二指肠切除术,4例行保留十二指肠的胰头切除术,4例行胰头、胰颈部切除术,2例行钩突部分切除术,9例行肿瘤摘除术,38例行胆肠吻合和(或)胃肠吻合术,22例行ERCP+内支架治疗,18例行PTCD+内支架治疗,1例行剖腹探查,88例未行治疗.结论 胰头占位性病变的临床诊断及鉴别诊断主要依靠病史、临床表现、实验室检查及超声、CT、MRI检查.根据肿瘤性质、疾病种类个体化制订手术方案,对胰头良性及低度恶性的肿瘤应行个体化治疗,在肿瘤完整切除的基础上尽量保留肿瘤周围的组织和器官,术中病理学诊断有利于手术方案的选择.     

胰头肿块型胰腺炎的诊治分析

目的 总结分析胰头肿块型胰腺炎的诊断和治疗方法。方法 回顾性分析我院1998年2月至2007年2月间收治的175例慢性胰腺炎病例．总结其中16例因胰头占位，术前难以与胰腺癌进行鉴别而行胰十二指肠切除术患者的病例资料。本组中有饮酒史者12例，慢性胆囊炎史者4例。因梗阻性黄疸入院者11例，因腹痛入院者5例。诊断方法包括肿瘤标志物、B超、CT、ERCP等。结果 16例患者术中探查均显示肿块位于胰头。与周围组织有粘连，其中1例与门静脉有粘连，但尚能剥离，术后病理证实均为慢性胰腺炎。结论 目前区分慢性胰腺炎与胰腺癌尚无特异性好和敏感性高的鉴别诊断方法，CT结合ERCP对大部分病例的鉴别诊断具有较高的价值，对于胰头肿块型胰腺炎行胰十二指肠切除术可以达到较好的治疗效果。     

十二指肠乳头癌的诊断与外科治疗:附48例报告

目的　探讨十二指肠乳头癌的诊断及治疗效果。方法　回顾分析收治的 48例十二指肠乳头癌患者的临床资料。黄疸 43例 ,上腹疼痛 2 3例 ,皮肤瘙痒 12例 ,其他症状 7例。B超、CT及ERCP检查确诊率分别为 3 9.6% ,5 0 .0 %和 93 .3 %。 3 9例行胰十二指肠切除术 (其中 1例为保留幽门术式 ) ,5例行胆肠和 /或胃肠吻合术 ,1例行肿瘤局部切除 ,3例确诊后自动出院。结果　随诊 3 6例。胰十二指肠切除术后生存期超过 1a者占 66.7% ( 2 4/3 6) ,超过 3a者 3 0 .6% ( 11/3 6)。胰十二指肠切除术 8例中有 2例术后 7年至今仍存活。 3例放弃手术治疗者无 1例生存期超过 1a。行胆肠和 /或胃肠吻合术中仅有 1例生存期超过 1a。结论　ERCP加活检是该病的主要诊断手段 ,根治性手术是主要的治疗措施     

胰头肿块型慢性胰腺炎8例报道

目的分析胰头肿块型慢性胰腺炎与胰头癌的鉴别诊断,并选择有效的手术治疗方法。方法回顾性分析我院2008年1月至2014年1月期间8例胰头肿块型慢性胰腺炎患者的临床病理资料。患者术前行血液肿瘤标志物等检测,肝胆胰彩色多普勒超声、CT强化、MRI、MRCP等影像学检查。结果 8例患者中有长期饮酒或酗酒史4例,既往急性胰腺炎病史5例,慢性胆囊炎病史3例,胆囊结石2例。主要症状为不同程度的黄疸6例和左上腹疼痛5例。术前血清化验高血糖4例,胆红素持续性增高6例,CA19-9增高5例,CEA增高2例(同时CA19-9增高)。影像学检查均提示胰头部肿块。行标准的胰十二指肠切除术6例,保留十二指肠的胰头切除术2例。8例患者术中均行细针穿刺多点细胞学检查提示慢性胰腺炎变化,术后病理均为慢性胰腺炎。术前CA19-9、CEA单独或共同升高患者于术后1周复查CA19-9、CEA均降至正常水平。所有患者术后均未出现胰漏、胆汁漏等严重并发症,黄疸和腹痛均缓解。1例保留十二指肠的胰头切除术后3个月出现间断性呕吐,上消化道造影显示十二指肠重度狭窄,再次手术探查发现十二指肠挛缩,以降段明显,行胃空肠吻合,症状缓解。患者术后定期门诊复查率为100%,随访时间1~6年,所有患者均未出现肿块复发、黄疸、腹痛等。结论胰头肿块型慢性胰腺炎和胰头癌患者虽均以黄疸和腹痛为主要症状,但其特点不同,前者轻微、波动性、间歇性,后者持续并渐进性加重;了解既往病史对鉴别二者有一定意义;CA19-9、CEA作为鉴别胰头肿块型慢性胰腺炎与胰头癌意义不大,对胰头肿块型慢性胰腺炎患者术中行胰头部肿块细针多点穿刺活检,首选保留十二指肠胰头切除术,胰头肿块与周围血管粘连重呈浸润性改变患者需行胰十二指肠切除术。     

胰头部肿块鉴别诊断和临床对策

胰头部肿块的鉴别诊断中最为困难的是胰头肿块型胰腺炎与胰腺癌的鉴别。近年来,血清肿瘤标记物检查、多排螺旋CT和内镜超声引导穿刺活检等技术的发展为临床鉴别诊断提供了很多帮助,但仍有部分病人不能通过非手术方法获得确诊。对于这些病人,在与病人及家属进行充分沟通后,可以考虑行剖腹探查,建议术中对胰头部肿块行细针多点穿刺细胞学检查,并由专业人员及时处理标本。慢性胰腺炎是胰腺癌的癌前病变,并且可以导致胰管、胆管及十二指肠梗阻,行胰十二指肠切除术或保留十二指肠的胰头切除术能切除病变,缓解疼痛症状,改善病人的生活质量。但由于该手术创伤大,术后并发症发生率较高,应严格掌握手术适应证,加强围手术期处理,由经验丰富的医师实施手术,将并发症的发生率降到最低。     

肿块型慢性胰腺炎的诊治

目的　总结肿块型慢性胰腺炎 (mass typechronicpancreatitis ,MTCP )的诊治经验 ,以提高对该病的认识。方法　回顾性分析近 8年来手术治疗的 2 5例MTCP患者的临床资料。 2 5例中行CT检查 2 3例 ,B超检查 2 1例 ,逆行胰胆管造影检查 (ERCP) 6例 ,超声内镜检查 (EUS) 5例 ,阳性发现率分别为 95 .7% ,85 .7% ,83 .3 % ,10 0 %。 2 5例均接受手术治疗 ,其中行胰十二指肠切除或保留幽门的胰十二指肠切除术 17例 ,保留十二指肠的胰头次全切除术 (Beger手术 ) 1例 ,胰头部分挖除、胰管空肠吻合术 (Freys手术 ) 3例。胰体尾部切除术 4例。 结果　上腹痛是MTCP的主要临床症状。肿块位于胰头部者 2 1例 (84.0 % ) ,胰体尾部者 4例 (16.0 % )。术前诊断为MTCP 16例 ,胰腺癌 9例。术后病理诊断为MTCP 2 2例 ,慢性胰腺炎合并胰腺癌 3例 ,术前误诊率 2 4.0 %。术后发生胰漏 1例 ,吻合口出血 2例 ,并发症发生率为 12 .0 %。术后近期 92 .0 %的患者腹痛缓解。 2 3例获 1～ 5年随访 ,平均随访 3 .4年 ,82 .6%的患者疗效满意。结论　MTCP应及早手术 ,多可获得满意疗效 ,并对减缓疾病进程有利。     

23例胰头肿块型胰腺炎的诊治分析

目的 总结分析胰头肿块型胰腺炎的诊断和治疗方法。方法 回顾性分析我院1983年5月至2001年10月收治的245例慢性胰腺炎病例，总结其中23例因胰头上位术前难以与胰腺癌进行鉴别而行胰十二指肠切除术病人的病例资料。结果 本组中有饮酒史者16例，慢性胆囊炎史5例，特发性1例，工作中长期接触有毒气体者1例。因梗阻性黄疸入院者14例，另9例因主诉腹痛入院，病程小于2年者19例，大于2年者14例。诊断方法包括肿瘤标记物，B超，CT，ERCP和血管造影。23例病人术中探查均显示肿物位于胰头，与周围组织粘连严重，其中3例与门静脉有粘连，但尚能剥离，而术后病理均为慢性胰腺炎。结论 目前尚无特异性好和敏感性高的有效鉴别诊断方法区分慢性胰腺炎与胰腺癌，分子生物学进展对此有一定帮助，增强CT结合ERCP对大部分病例的鉴别诊断具有较高的价值。由于酒精性胰腺炎已经被认为是癌前病变，对于胰头肿块型胰腺炎行胰十二指肠切除术已经逐渐被接受。     

影像学检查技术在壶腹周围癌诊断上的合理应用

目的：探讨影像学检查技术在壶腹周围诊断上的合理应用。方法：对我院185例壶腹周围癌（包括胰头癌119例、十二指肠乳头癌41例、Vater壶腹癌13例、胆总管下段癌12例）的临床特点和各种影像学检查资料进行回顾性分析。结果：本组CT诊断胰头癌的准确率为90．9％；ERCP对十二指肠乳头癌的确诊率为100％；ERCP和MRCP对壶腹癌和胆总管下段癌的诊断价值优于其他检查。78％的病人上腹饱胀／隐痛出现时间早于黄疸1－3月。血清CA19－9值在3／4以上的胰头癌、壶腹癌和胆总管下段癌病人超过正常值。结论：凡有中上腹部饱胀、隐痛、血清CA19－9值升高、胆总管和（或）胰管扩张的病人应有步骤地进行各种影像学检查。超声检查发现胰头部有肿块，宜行CT检查。如未发现肿块，则行ERCP。凡ERCP检查时观察到有肿瘤征象的病人，不宜作胰胆管造影而仅作活检。MRCP可用于胰胆管造影失败的壶腹癌和胆总管下段癌。超声内镜对壶腹周围癌的诊断和鉴别诊断也起重要作用。     

胰头肿块型慢性胰腺炎的诊断与治疗

目的：探讨胰头肿块型慢性胰腺炎的诊治方法。方法：对近15年行胰十二指肠切除术并经病理证实的17例胰头肿块型慢性胰腺炎的临床资料进行回顾性分析。结果：本组术前均不能排除胰头癌。17例均行胰十二指肠切除术，术后发生胰漏1例，其余恢复顺利，效果良好。结论：胰头肿块型慢性胰腺炎早期诊断困难，尤其应与胰头癌相鉴别。对不能排除胰头癌或出现顽固性疼痛，胆管、胰管及十二指肠梗阻时，应行胰十二指肠切除术。     

Sagittal plane analysis of the open and closed methods in children with displaced supracondylar fractures of the humerus (a radiological study)

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to compare the radiological outcome of open and close reduction and osteosynthesis methods in the treatment of type II and III supracondylar humerus fractures in childhood with respect to the immediate post-operative reduction quality in sagittal plane. METHOD: One hundred and forty four-pediatric patients with type IIb and III supracondylar humerus fractures treated at two centers between 1995 and 2005 were evaluated radiologically within a retrospective study. Seventy-six patients (54 boys, 22 girls, mean age 7.6, range 2-12) were treated by closed reduction and cross percutaneous pinning while 68 (49 boys, 19 girls, mean age 7.3, range 2-13) were treated by open reduction. The reduction quality of the open and closed groups was compared on immediate post-operative lateral radiographs by measuring of lateral humerocapitellar angle, anterior humeral line and anterior coronoid line criteria. The reduction quality was classified excellent, good, fair and poor according to the achievement of three, two, one or none of the criteria, respectively. Reductions classified as excellent and good were introduced as acceptable results. RESULTS: At least one criterion was achieved in all the patients of both the groups. The mean humerocapitellar angle was 30.1 degrees in closed reduction group while the mean of it was 29.8 degrees in open reduced group. Radiograph of 48 (63.1%) patients with closed reduction were found to display the anterior humeral line intersecting the middle one-third of capitellum while this criteria was 45 (66%) in open reduction group. The anterior coronoid line was disturbed in three patients in each of both the groups. The reduction quality was evaluated to be excellent in 32 patients, good in 31, fair in 13 at the closed reduction group while these evaluations were 31, 20 and 17 in open reduction group, respectively. Successful reduction was achieved in 74.9% of the patients in closed reduction group and 75% of the patients in open reduction group. CONCLUSION: It is concluded that there was no significant difference between closed and open reductions of pediatric displaced supracondylar fractures with regard to the radiological criteria of reduction quality in sagittal plane.     

Comprehensive review of post–organ transplant hematologic cancers

A higher risk for a variety of cancers is among the major complications of posttransplantation immunosuppression. In this part of a continuing series on cancers posttransplantation, this review focuses on the hematologic cancers after solid organ transplantation. Posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLDs), which comprise the great majority of hematologic cancers, represent a spectrum of conditions that include, but are not limited to, the Hodgkin and non‐Hodgkin lymphomas. The oncogenic Epstein‐Barr virus is a key pathogenic driver in many PTLD cases, through known and unknown mechanisms. The other hematologic cancers include leukemias and plasma cell neoplasms (multiple myeloma and plasmacytoma). Clinical features vary across malignancies and location. Preventive screening strategies have been attempted mainly for PTLDs. Treatments include the chemotherapy regimens for the specific cancers, but also include reduction of immunosuppression, rituximab, and other therapies.     

Risk of lip cancer after solid organ transplantation in the United States

Solid organ transplant recipients have an increased risk of lip cancer, but the reasons are uncertain. Using data from the Transplant Cancer Match Study, we describe the epidemiology of lip cancer among 261 500 transplant recipients in the United States. Two hundred thirty‐one lip cancers were identified, corresponding to elevated risks for both invasive and in situ lip cancers (standardized incidence ratios of 15.3 and 26.2, respectively). Invasive lip cancer incidence was associated with male sex (adjusted incidence rate ratio [aIRR] 2.01, 95% CI 1.44‐2.82), transplanted organ (0.33, 0.20‐0.57, for liver transplants and 3.07, 1.96‐4.81, for lung transplants, compared with kidney transplants), and racial/ethnic groups other than non‐Hispanic whites (0.09, 0.04‐0.2). In addition, incidence increased with age and during the first 3 years following transplant, and was higher in recipients prescribed cyclosporine/azathioprine maintenance therapy (aIRR 1.79, 95% CI 1.09‐2.93, compared with use of tacrolimus/mycophenolate mofetil) and following a diagnosis of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (4.21, 2.69‐0.94). The elevation in lip cancer incidence is consistent with an effect of immunosuppression. Notably, the very strong associations with white race and history of prior skin cancer point to an important role for ultraviolet radiation exposure, and cyclosporine and azathioprine may contribute as photosensitizing or DNA damaging agents.     

Decreasing incidence of cancer after liver transplantation—A Nordic population‐based study over 3 decades

Cancer remains one of the most serious long‐term complications after liver transplantation (LT). Data for all adult LT patients between 1982 and 2013 were extracted from the Nordic Liver Transplant Registry. Through linkage with respective national cancer‐registry data, we calculated standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) based on country, sex, calendar time, and age‐specific incidence rates. Altogether 461 cancers were observed in 424 individuals of the 4246 LT patients during a mean 6.6‐year follow‐up. The overall SIR was 2.22 (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.02‐2.43). SIRs were especially increased for colorectal cancer in recipients with primary sclerosing cholangitis (4.04) and for lung cancer in recipients with alcoholic liver disease (4.96). A decrease in the SIR for cancers occurring within 10 years post‐LT was observed from the 1980s: 4.53 (95%CI, 2.47‐7.60), the 1990s: 3.17 (95%CI, 2.70‐3.71), to the 2000s: 1.76 (95%CI, 1.51‐2.05). This was observed across age‐ and indication‐groups. The sequential decrease for the SIR of non‐Hodgkin lymphoma was 25.0‐12.9‐7.53, and for nonmelanoma skin cancer 80.0‐29.7‐10.4. Cancer risk after LT was found to be decreasing over time, especially for those cancers that are strongly associated with immunosuppression. Whether immunosuppression minimization contributed to this decrease merits further study.     

梗阻性黄疸患者血浆可溶性P-选择素与内毒素、D-二聚体的关系及其意义

目的　研究梗阻性黄疸 (梗黄 )患者血浆可溶性P -选择素 (sP selectin ,sP s)与内毒素 (ET )及D -二聚体 (D d)的关系及其意义。方法　应用ELISA和鲎试剂比色法测定梗黄组、急性胆囊炎组和健康人组血浆sP s ,D d和ET含量。结果　健康人组血浆sP s含量为 (93 .43± 17.65 )ng/ml ,ET (0 .0 0 3 0± 0 .0 0 0 4)EU /ml ,D d(0 .3 9± 0 .2 1)mg/L ;急性胆囊炎组血浆sP s含量为 (2 3 3 .3 2± 82 .12 )ng/ml ,ET (0 .40 12± 0 .15 0 6)EU /ml ,D d(0 .76± 0 .2 7)mg/L ;梗黄组血浆sP s含量为 (3 5 1.90± 93 .83 )ng/ml ,ET(0 .3 814± 0 .14 3 0 )EU /ml ,D d(2 .14± 0 .3 7)mg/L。急性胆囊炎组和梗黄组sP s ,D d及ET均高于健康人组 (P <0 .0 1) ;梗黄组ET与急性胆囊组差异无显著性 ,但梗黄组sP s和D d较急性胆囊炎组高 (P <0 .0 1) ,梗黄组的以上二物质含量呈正相关性 (P <0 .0 1) ;急性胆囊炎组sP s与ET呈正相关性 (P <0 .0 1)。协方差分析表明 ,在相同ET含量时 ,梗黄组sP s高于急性胆囊炎组 (P <0 .0 1) ,且与D d有相关性 ,二者有相同变化趋势。结论　胆道梗阻是ET致血管内皮细胞损伤和血小板活化的敏感性因素 ,梗黄患者血液高凝状态与继发性纤溶反应处于动态平衡 ,提示动态监测血浆sP s和D d变化 ,     

胆囊炎患者胆汁中内皮素浓度的意义

目的探讨胆囊炎患者胆汁中内皮素浓度及其意义。方法采用放射免疫分析法测定了４０４例单纯型、４８例化脓型和２７例坏疽型结石性胆囊炎患者胆汁中内皮素浓度。结果三型胆囊炎患者胆汁内皮素浓度分别为２７４±８３ｐｇ／ｍｌ,４２３±１１１ｐｇ／ｍｌ和６７５±１３８ｐｇ／ｍｌ,与对照组测值１９４±４７ｐｇ／ｍｌ比较,具有显著性差异（Ｐ＜０．０５～０．０１）。结论胆汁中内皮素参与了胆囊炎的病理过程,其作用机制尚需深入研究。     

肾脏黏液样小管状和梭形细胞癌(附2例报道及文献复习)

目的 探讨肾脏黏液样小管状和梭形细胞癌(Mucinous tubular and spindle cell carcinoma,MTSCC)的临床及病理学特点.方法 对本院收治的2例肾脏黏液样小管状和梭形细胞癌患者临床及病理特点进行观察和讨论并结合相关文献复习.结果 2例患者术后诊断:肾脏黏液样小管状和梭形细胞癌.临床及病理特征符合相关文献对该型肾癌的报道,术后长期严密随访无复发.结论 MTSCC是罕见的肾癌分型,症状隐匿,具有独特的病理学特征,早期手术是最佳治疗方法,预后良好,罕见预后较差报道.     

胃切除术后应用改良Braun术式重建胃肠道预防返流性胃炎

目的探讨预防胃十二指肠溃疡术后碱性返流性胃炎的发生和逆转原残胃粘膜的炎性病变的新手术治疗方法。方法采用胃部分切除术后改良Ｂｒａｕｎ术式对胃十二指肠球部溃疡病急性穿孔并弥漫性腹膜炎２３例病人进行治疗。术后１～２年随访２２例，其中１９例行胃镜复查及残胃液甘胆酸（ＣＧ）测定、幽门螺杆菌（ＨＰ）检查。９例钡餐透视观察残胃排空情况。结果所有病人术后恢复好，Ｖｉｓｉｃｋ分级优良率为９５７％；残胃炎消除率为７３７％；ＨＰ感染率由术前的５８％降至２１％；胃镜及钡餐检查无１例出现胆汁返流，仅１例残胃排空延迟钡餐检查为输出袢粘连。结论改良Ｂｒａｕｎ术式的应用可有效地减少残胃炎发生，对预防残胃炎及残胃癌发生有积极意义     

Epidemiologic perspectives on immunosuppressed populations and the immunosurveillance and immunocontainment of cancer

The advent in the last several years of effective immunotherapy for cancer has renewed interest in the role of the immune system in controlling cancer. The idea that the immune system can help control cancer has a long history. Solid organ transplant recipients (SOTRs) as well as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)–infected people are affected by cell‐mediated immune dysfunction. Epidemiologic studies of these populations reveal a pattern characterized by a strongly increased incidence of virus‐related cancers (eg, Kaposi sarcoma, non‐Hodgkin lymphoma, and anogenital cancers). In addition, recent epidemiologic studies have evaluated cancer‐specific mortality among SOTRs and HIV‐infected people following a cancer diagnosis. For a wider range of cancers—not limited to those caused by viruses, and including melanoma and cancers of the colorectum, lung, and breast— these immunosuppressed cancer patients have higher cancer‐specific mortality than other cancer patients. This latter group of cancers somewhat mirrors those for which immunotherapy with checkpoint inhibitors is approved. These epidemiologic observations suggest that there are 2 distinct immune selection processes in humans: immunosurveillance directed against premalignant cells before cancer diagnosis (most relevant for preventing virus‐related cancers), and “immunocontainment” directed against established cancers. These processes thus appear relevant for different groups of malignancies and may have different mechanisms.