经颅多普勒超声及经颅彩色多普勒超声评估基底动脉狭窄的准确性研究

目的探讨经颅多普勒超声（TCD）或经颅彩色多普勒超声（TCCS）联合评估基底动脉狭窄性病变的血流动力学参数标准及准确性。 方法连续纳入2012年6月至2014年6月首都医科大学宣武医院同期进行TCD及TCCS检测,并经过数字减影血管造影（DSA）证实的基底动脉狭窄患者261例,记录基底动脉狭窄患者基底动脉收缩期峰值流速（PSV_BA）、舒张末期流速（EDV_BA）与平均流速（MFV_BA）、狭窄处距体表的检测深度（D）,并计算基底动脉与双侧椎动脉颅内段、大脑后动脉PSV（取较高侧测值）比值（PSV_BA/PSV_VA和PSV_BA/PSV_PCA）,以DSA检查结果为标准计算PSV_BA、EDV_BA、MFV_BA、PSV_BA/PSV_VA及PSV_BA/PSV_PCA的受试者操作特性（ROC）曲线下面积,比较上述各参数在不同取值下的敏感度、特异度及准确性。 结果（1）基底动脉近段狭窄发生于（90±5.4）mm处,中段狭窄发生于（97±3.0）mm处,而远段狭窄常发生于（104±4.2）mm处。（2）基底动脉狭窄诊断最佳血流动力学参数：轻度狭窄的最佳参数标准为110 cm/s≤PSV≤150 cm/s或65 cm/s≤MFV≤90 cm/s。中度狭窄为150 cm/s≤PSV≤210 cm/s或90 cm/s≤MFV≤135 cm/s。重度狭窄为PSV_BA≥210 cm/s或PSV_BA/PSV_VA≥3.5。 结论TCD或TCCS联合评估基底动脉狭窄,选择PSV、MFV及PSV_BA/PSV_VA血流动力学参数可以准确评估基底动脉狭窄性病变。     

TCD平均血流速度在大脑中动脉狭窄程度评估中的应用

目的:应用经颅多普勒超声技术(TCD)测定大脑中动脉平均血流速度(MFV),探索MFV对大脑中动脉狭窄程度评估的诊断价值.方法:回顾性分析经数字减影血管造影技术(DSA)证实的大脑中动脉狭窄患者185例,对345条大脑中动脉测定数据进行分析.并计算不同MFV对大脑中动脉狭窄≥50％及≥70％时灵敏度、特异度、阳性预测值、阴性预测值、总准确度及其95％CI、ROC曲线下面积.结果:DSA证实大脑中动脉狭窄程度≥50％时,MFV≥100 CM/S,其灵敏度为75.2％、特异度93.6％、阳性预测值90.8％、阴性预测值81.9％,准确度最高达85.2％,ROC曲线下面积最大至0.827.大脑中动脉狭窄程度≥70％时,MFV≥120 CM/S或低血流速度时,其ROC曲线下面积最大(0.732),灵敏度达66.7％,特异度为81.4％,相应的总准确度为78％.结论:MFV≥100 CM/S对大脑中动脉狭窄≥50％的判定具有较高的灵敏度及准确度、而MFV≥120CM/S或LV与DSA证实的大脑中动脉狭窄≥70％存在较高一致性.TCD有助于判断大脑中动脉狭窄程度,是脑血管病患者介入术前的良好筛查工具.     

大脑中动脉狭窄血管内支架成形术前后经颅多普勒超声的评价作用

目的探讨大脑中动脉(MCA)狭窄血管内支架成形术前后经颅多普勒超声(TCD)血流动力学的变化。方法通过对26例确诊为MCA狭窄的患者,经药物抗栓治疗期间仍有反复短暂性缺血发作及患者自愿做支架治疗的患者,行MCA血管内支架成形术治疗。应用TCD观察对比术前及术后血流动力学变化。结果26例MCA狭窄患者均成功行血管内支架成形术。术前MCA平均血流速度为(184·4±15·57)cm/s,血管内支架成形术后MCA的平均血流速度明显下降为(77·6±7·86)cm/s,差异有统计学意义(P<0·001)。结论TCD显示,血管内支架成形术后可缓解MCA狭窄程度,改善其血流动力学的变化,进而改善脑组织的功能,有利于肢体功能的恢复,从而预防脑卒中的发生。MCA血管内支架成形术后不宜MRA及DSA检查,TCD对诊断颅内血管狭窄及血流动力学变化有较高的特异性。     

支架成形术对大脑中动脉狭窄患者短期血液动力学的影响

目的 应用经颅多普勒超声(TCD)观察症状性大脑中动脉(MCA)狭窄患者支架成形术后短期内的血液动力学变化.方法 对标准的抗血小板治疗期间仍有症状发作的29例MCA中重度狭窄患者31条MCA实施支架成形术,应用TCD系统评价术前、术后1 h及3 d内的MCA狭窄段及狭窄下游段的血液动力学变化.结果 血管造影显示支架成形术后MCA的残余狭窄率均＜20%.与术前相比,术后1h及3 d的收缩期峰值血流速度(PSV)明显下降[(162±38)cm/s对(273±77)cm/s,P＜0.01;(168±45)cm/s对(273±77)cm/s,P＜0.01],术后1 h及3 d的PSV差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).3例患者(3条动脉)术后第3 d TCD发现狭窄段又出现了狭窄样频谱,CT扫描显示2例颅内出血,1例无异常;至少28.6%(8/28)的患者狭窄下游段出现了PSV的成倍增加.对侧MCA支架成形术前后的PSV差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 支架成形术可明显改善MCA中重度狭窄患者狭窄段及狭窄下游段的血液动力学异常,但存在较高的过度灌注风险.     

血管超声对颈动脉内膜剥脱术中血管结构变化及血流动力学的评估

目的 分析彩色多普勒血流成像(CDFI)与经颅多普勒(TCD)超声联合应用,在颈动脉内膜剥脱术(carotid endarterectomy,CEA)中对局部动脉形态结构和颅内大脑中动脉(MCA)、颅外颈动脉血流动力学变化的监测,综合评估该检查技术对提高CEA成功率的实用价值.方法 选择行CEA的患者136例,术中通过对颈动脉管径、收缩期峰值及舒张末期血流流速(PSV和EDV)的测量,记录残余狭窄的发生率和检测术中二次手术剥脱前后局部PSV,EDV及颅内MCA血流动力学参数的变化.结果 对136例患者实施了CEA术.根据Panneton术中超声分类标准,将本组CEA术中CDFI结果分类为正常组86例,轻度异常组(25例),显著异常组(25例).显著异常组中16例(64%)进行术中二次剥脱.所有患者围手术期脑卒中发生率为5.9%.术中CDFI发现残余血管狭窄大于50%者为17.6%(24例),狭窄处管径(2.1±1.5)mm,较无残余狭窄者(3.9±1.1)mm明显减小(P=0.000).狭窄段PSV及EDV均明显升高(P=0.000,P=0.000).16例患者经二次手术剥脱后管径明显增宽(P=0.000),狭窄段PSV明显改善(P=0.000).术中二次剥脱患者的残余管径均≤2 mm,PSV>245 cm/s,患侧MCA的PSV及EDV由(47.1±16.7)cm/s和(24.2±9.0)cm/s提高(75.4±34.2)cm/s和(37.0±20.1)cm/s(P=0.000、P=0.001).结论 CDFI与TCD技术联合,可以客观评估CEA术中颈动脉及患侧MCA血管结构及血流动力学变化,即时指导术者实施二次剥脱,减少术中残余狭窄的发生率,提高CEA的成功率.     

三维时间飞跃法磁共振血管成像与数字减影血管造影诊断基底动脉狭窄的一致性分析

目的使用统计学方法评估三维时间飞跃法磁共振血管成像(3D TOF MRA)和金标准数字减影血管造影(DSA)诊断基底动脉狭窄一致性。方法回顾性分析70例基底动脉狭窄患者的3D TOF MRA和DSA图像。把图像质量分为优、良、差三级,使用盲法评估血管狭窄程度,狭窄率≥50%的病变定为严重狭窄。MIP图像和原始图像相结合评估基底动脉病变狭窄程度,在原始图像上测量狭窄率。利用MEDCALC12.0软件进行统计学分析。使用Wilcoxon配对秩和检验衡量MRA和DSA狭窄率的差异;计算Spearman秩相关系数评价二者之间相关性;使用Bland-Altman图法比较二者测量结果的一致性。并计算诊断严重狭窄的敏感度、特异度、阳性似然比、阴性似然比、患病率、阳性预测值和阴性预测值,绘制ROC曲线。结果 MRA上38条基底动脉严重狭窄,DSA上35条动脉严重狭窄。MRA测得的基底动脉狭窄率(52.57±22.79)%稍大于DSA上测得的狭窄率(51.84±23.20)%,二者比较无统计学差异(P=0.152);相关性强(r=0.985,P<0.001);Bland-Altman图显示较强的一致性,95.71%(67/70)的点位于一致性界限内。敏感度、特异度、阳性似然比、阴性似然比、患病率、阳性预测值、阴性预测值分别为94.29%、85.71%、6.6、0.07、50.00%、86.84%、93.75%。ROC曲线下面积为0.9(P<0.001)。结论和DSA相比,3D TOF MRA的诊断基底动脉狭窄的具有很好的一致性。     

脑破裂动脉瘤栓塞术后TCD检测脑血管痉挛的 临床价值

目的:分析经颅多普勒(TCD)技术对脑动脉瘤破裂栓塞手术后脑血管痉挛(CVS)的诊断价值。方法:选取颅内动脉瘤患者100例,根据患者术前大脑中动脉(MCA)收缩期峰值流速(PSV)值分为低流速组69例(PSV≤120 cm/s)和高流速组31例(PSV120 cm/s),对比2组于栓塞术后10 d内的MCA血流速度及CVS发生率;所有患者同时以临床是否发生CVS作为标准,评估TCD诊断CVS的临床价值。结果:低流速组和高流速组在术前、术后1 d、术后3 d、术后5 d、术后7 d及术后10 d的MCA血流速度测定值比较差异均具有统计学意义(P0.05);术后10 d内,临床确诊CVS患者32例,TCD检查低流速组诊断CVS 4例、高流速组29例,共计诊断33例,其中正确诊断25例、误诊8例、漏诊7例;TCD诊断CVS的灵敏度为78.12%,特异度为88.24%,漏诊率为21.88%,误诊率为11.76%;术后3月,低流速组预后良好89.86%,高流速组预后良好29.03%,低流速组的预后显著优于高流速组患者(P0.01)。结论:TCD技术在脑动脉瘤破裂栓塞手术后诊断CVS具有较高的灵敏度和特异度,同时术前根据TCD结果可以对患者的预后进行初步评估。     

大脑中动脉重度狭窄或闭塞性病变脑膜支代偿对颅外段颈内动脉血流动力学的影响

目的探讨大脑中动脉(MCA)重度狭窄或慢性闭塞性病变患侧大脑前动脉(ACA)软脑膜动脉吻合对于颅外段颈内动脉(ICA)血流动力学的影响。方法选取2015年1月至12月颅多普勒超声(TCD)或经颅彩色多普勒超声(TCCS)诊断为一侧MCA重度狭窄或慢性闭塞并经数字减影血管造影(DSA)证实,且对侧MCA正常及双侧颅外段ICA管径正常或狭窄率50%的患者186例,其中,MCA重度狭窄组患者88例,MCA慢性闭塞组患者98例,根据DSA检测结果,ACA存在软脑膜动脉吻合者72例,无软脑膜动脉吻合者114例。采用TCD和(或)TCCS及颈动脉彩色多普勒超声测量并记录患侧、健侧ACA的收缩期峰值流速(PSV)、舒张期末流速(EDV)、血管阻力指数(RI)测值,患侧、健侧颅外段ICA的PSV、EDV及RI测值,采用独立样本t检验及配对t检验比较2组患侧、健侧ACA与ICA的血流动力学参数,以及软脑膜动脉吻合患侧建立与否与ACA及ICA的血流动力学参数的差异。采用线性回归分析患侧ICA及ACA血流参数间的相关性。结果 (1)MCA慢性闭塞组患侧ICA的PSV及EDV均较重度狭窄组明显减低,RI值明显升高[(71.27±17.84)cm/s vs(78.07±14.69)cm/s,(27.00±8.38)cm/s vs(32.01±7.83)cm/s,0.625±0.056 vs0.591±0.057],差异均有统计学意义(t=2.820、4.243、4.099,P均0.01)。2组患者患侧ICA的PSV及EDV测值均显著低于健侧[PSV:(78.07±14.69)cm/s vs(85.26±17.42)cm/s,(71.27±17.84)cm/s vs(83.80±22.11)cm/s;EDV:(32.01±7.83)cm/s vs(34.50±7.36)cm/s,(27.00±8.38)cm/s vs(33.22±9.97)cm/s],差异均有统计学意义(t=2.847、5.209、2.058、5.626,P均0.05),慢性闭塞组患侧的RI值显著高于健侧(0.625±0.056 vs 0.601±0.076),差异有统计学意义(t=2.601,P0.05),重度狭窄组两侧的RI值比较,差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。(2)存在软脑膜动脉吻合时,2组患者患侧ACA的PSV及EDV均较无软脑膜动脉吻合时明显升高,RI值明显减低[PSV:(164.19±22.64)cm/s vs(97.56±19.17)cm/s,(168.95±28.03)cm/s vs(96.72±21.57)cm/s;EDV:(75.68±12.53)cm/s vs(42.65±10.03)cm/s,(79.93±13.73)cm/s vs(42.30±11.95)cm/s;RI:0.540±0.036 vs 0.564±0.043,0.526±0.037 vs 0.566±0.051],差异均有统计学意义(t=14.604、14.416、13.492、14.444、2.727、4.250,P均0.01)。2组内患、健侧比较,存在软脑膜动脉吻合时患侧ACA的PSV及EDV均较健侧明显升高,RI值较健侧明显减低[PSV:(164.19±22.64)cm/s vs(105.19±26.95)cm/s,(168.95±28.03)cm/s vs(97.90±24.18)cm/s;EDV:(75.68±12.53)cm/s vs(44.10±13.87)cm/s,(79.93±13.73)cm/s vs(41.83±10.88)cm/s;RI:0.540±0.036 vs 0.583±0.050,0.526±0.037 vs 0.572±0.037],差异均有统计学意义(t=10.049、15.906、10.313、16.864、4.083、6.145,P均0.01),无软脑膜动脉吻合时,患侧ACA血流参数与健侧比较,差异均无统计学意义(P均0.05)。(3)MCA重度狭窄患者无软脑膜动脉吻合组患侧ICA的PSV、EDV及RI与软脑膜动脉吻合组比较,差异均无统计学意义(P均0.05)。MCA慢性闭塞患者无软脑膜动脉吻合组患侧ICA的PSV及EDV较软脑膜动脉吻合组显著降低,RI值明显升高[(65.93±13.34)cm/s vs(78.68±20.64)cm/s,(23.98±6.30)cm/s vs(31.20±9.08)cm/s,0.638±0.055 vs 0.605±0.053],差异均有统计学意义(t=3.713、4.647、2.925,P均0.01)。(4)MCA重度狭窄组患侧ICA与ACA的血流参数间均无相关关系(P0.05)。慢性闭塞组中患侧ICA的PSV与患侧ACA的PSV、EDV呈线性正相关(r=0.350、0.367,P均0.01),患侧ICA的RI值与患侧ACA的PSV及EDV呈线性负相关(r=-0.550、-0.531,P均0.01)。结论 MCA重度狭窄或闭塞TCD或TCCS检测患侧ACA流速升高可提示软脑膜动脉吻合存在,软脑膜动脉吻合可导致慢性闭塞患者同侧颅外段ICA流速明显下降而阻力升高,而重度狭窄患者同侧颅外段ICA血流动力学无明显改变。     

脑动脉收缩峰值流速异常增高判断脑梗塞部位的临床价值:102例TCD与CT结果的比较

本文102例接CT及MRI检查结果分成脑梗塞组73例、非脑梗塞组29例。后者的颅内动脉TCD测值与文献报道的国人同年龄组的正常值相近，而前者的颅内动脉血流速度多有增高，尤以收缩期及平均速度难高明显。以VsACA≥90cm／s，MCA＞100cm≥s、PCA≥90cm／s作为判断受检动脉有无狭窄的指标，脑梗塞组中50例的脑动脉Vs异常增高，非脑梗塞组中仅5例的MCAVs≥100cm／s。16例单侧脑腔梗中有11例同侧、双侧脑腔模10例中有5例单侧或双侧ACA或MCA及PCA的TCD上血流显示异常增高。单侧多发性脑梗塞15例中是2例的同侧ACA、MCA及PCA的Vs异常增高，29例双侧多发性脑梗塞中11例双侧、11例单侧颅内动脉血流TCD检出有异常。TCD对脑梗塞部位病变血管的检出阳性预期值为90．6％，特异度82．8％，与CT及MRI的诊断符合率为70．6％。     

一侧大脑中动脉狭窄的TCD诊断与狭窄指数的推导

目的阐述大脑中动脉(MCA)狭窄的经颅多普勒超声(TCD)的诊断和鉴别诊断方法,并通过一侧MCA狭窄的TCD资料推导出脑动脉狭窄的狭窄指数(STI).方法对31例一侧MCA狭窄的TCD资料进行分析、归纳MCA狭窄的TCD诊断方法;并用生物流体动力学原理推导出MCA狭窄的STI;采用国外学者通过DSA证实过的Lindegaard指数(LDGI)与STI进行相关分析,评价STI的可靠性.结果MCA狭窄的TCD诊断要点①狭窄MCA的Vm明显升高,≥100cm/s时伴有PI值减低;②对侧ACA的PI值升高或正常;③同侧PCA、ACA的Vm升高或正常;④LDGI≥3.0;⑤STI≥0.5时MCA明显狭窄;≥0.6时严重狭窄;⑥注意与动静脉畸形相鉴别.推导出的STI公式为STI=1-(Vm1÷Vm0)×(PI1÷PI0),STI与LDGI呈正相关(r =0.72、p<0.01).结论TCD不但可以准确地诊断MCA的狭窄,还可评价狭窄的程度.STI的波动的范围可能与病理状态下的血管狭窄比率相当,可以作为判断脑动脉狭窄程度的指标.     

Guns and Knives in New Mexico: Patterns of Penetrating Trauma, 1978–1993

Objective: To identify patterns of nonfatal and fatal penetrating trauma among children and adults in New Mexico using ED and medical examiner data.
Methods: The authors retrospectively sampled in 5-year intervals all victims of penetrating trauma who presented to either the state Level-1 trauma center or the state medical examiner from a 16-year period (1978–1993). Rates of nonfatal and fatal firearm and stabbing injury were compared for children and adults.
Results: Rates of nonfatal injury were similar (firearm, 34.3 per 100,000 person-years; stabbing, 35.1). However, rates of fatal injury were significantly different (firearm, 21.9; stabbing, 2.7; relative risk: 8.2; 95% confidence interval: 5.4, 12.5). From 1978 to 1993, nonfatal injury rates increased for children (p = 0.0043) and adults (p < 0.0001), while fatal penetrating injury remained constant. The increase in nonfatal injury in children resulted from increased firearm injury rates. In adults, both stabbing and firearm nonfatal injury rates increased.
Conclusions: Nonfatal injury data suggest that nonfatal violence has increased; fatal injury data suggest that violent death rates have remained constant. Injury patterns vary by age, mechanism of trauma, and data source. These results suggest that ED and medical examiner data differ and that both are needed to guide injury prevention programs.     

Interprofessional approaches to creating safe,high quality health care

Three supplementary perspectives are presented arguing that interprofessional collaboration is both necessary and desirable. Nonetheless, there are often too many serious intra-professional barriers and obstacles to interprofessional collaboration to make it successful. Some of these barriers, it is argued and illustrated, are found in the multiple ways in which professional identity is tacitly acquired and embodied in the practitioners' habitual, everyday practice. The paper then explores ways in which reflection, especially Second order reflection, can help to elucidate and overcome these obstacles, as well as increasing professional adaptability and competence.     

Systematic Reviews Published in the January 2011 Issue of The Cochrane Library

ABSTRACT

The Cochrane Library of Systematic Reviews is published quarterly as a DVD and monthly online. The January 2011 issue (first quarterly DVD for 2011) contains 4515 complete reviews, 1985 protocols for reviews in production, and 13,521 one-page summaries of systematic reviews published in the general medical literature. In addition, there are citations of 641,000 randomized controlled trials, and 14,018 cited papers in the Cochrane methodology register. The health technology assessment database contains over 9300 citations. One hundred and seven new reviews have been published in the last 3 months, of which five have potential relevance for practitioners in pain and palliative medicine.     

Prise en charge des entorses externes de cheville : étude clinique préliminaire sur l’efficacité du dispositif Myolux™

Ankle sprains are the most common injury of the musculoskeletal system and are associated with significant societal and economic impacts. It has been proven that classical therapeutic strategies may not be effective in preventing recurrent injuries: the recurrence rates reported in the literature can reach 73%. In order to provide an effective rehabilitation solution, a destabilizing orthosis was developed. This device is equipped with a mechanical articulator reproducing the subtalar mechanics and placed under the heel. In this paper, we present the main results of a preliminary clinical study conducted between 2004 and 2007. All subjects included in this study were treated with the abovementioned orthosis during 10 rehabilitation sessions of 30 minutes each. Data show a relatively low recurrence rate of 12% for the overall population. Moreover, it's of primary importance to note that this satisfactory ratio is largely reduced (3% of recurrence rate) for the 29 patients who performed one training session per month after the 10th initial rehabilitation sessions. Hence, the destabilizing orthosis appears to be an effective solution to prevent recurrent ankle sprains. However, joint protection requires long-term and regular training sessions. This result has motivated the development of a similar device allowing patients to perform training sessions at home. Finally, data obtained in this study are promising awaiting the final results of the comparative, multicentric and independent clinical trials currently managed by the Hospices Civils de Lyon.     

Clinical Trial Updates and Hotline Sessions presented at the European Society of Cardiology Congress 2007

This article provides information and commentaries on trials which were presented at the Hotline and Clinical Trial Update Sessions at the European Society of Cardiology Congress 2007 in Vienna. The key presentations were performed by leading experts in the field with relevant positions in the trials or registries. It is important to note that unpublished reports should be considered as preliminary data, as the analysis may change in the final publications. The comprehensive summaries have been generated from the oral presentation and the webcasts of the European Society of Cardiology and should provide the readers with the most comprehensive information of relevant publications.     

Prospects for the control of neglected tropical diseases by mass drug administration

The prospects for the control of neglected tropical diseases, including soil-transmitted helminthiasis, shistosomiasis, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis and trachoma, through mass drug administration, are exemplified by the elimination of the trachoma as a public-health problem in Morocco. In spite of this and other striking successes, mass drug administration programs are faced with major challenges resulting from suboptimal coverage and lack of efficacy. At current suboptimal coverage rates, programs may need prolongation for an extended period, increasing costs and undermining sustainability. Community participation through health education and information appears to be crucial to improve coverage and to achieve sustainability. Implementation of complementary measures, such as vector control, improved hygiene and environmental sanitation, are important to further control transmission and to prevent re-emergence of the infection and, again, may only be achieved effectively through community-based initiatives. To reduce costs and to relieve pressure on the health system, combining neglected tropical disease programs in areas where diseases coexist and integration with existing control programs for malaria, tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS is advocated. The risk of developing drug resistance is of particular concern in view of the lack of alternative drugs, and reduced treatment efficacy due to emerging resistance is evident for the soil-transmitted helminths and onchocerciasis. Given the risk for the development of drug resistance and the need for a high degree of participation, close attention should be paid to the monitoring of the coverage and efficacy of the different program components.     

Balance and Boundaries in Grief Counseling: An Intervention Framework for Volunteer Training

Volunteers or paraprofessional counselors are commonly used to provide supportive care to the bereaved. These counselors generally are trained in basic listening skills, providing a generic, nonspecific approach to intervention that remains to be proven effective. The present paper outlines a framework that provides paraprofessionals with a broader model for intervention with the bereaved. Attention to boundaries as a helper and balance in the grief recovery are central to the model. Interventions are described that provide the paraprofessional counselor with more options for tailoring their counseling strategy to the individual. These include techniques that are presumed to be more specific to the enhancement of grief recovery.     

A new method for the simultaneous analysis of unmodified and modified urinary nucleosides and nucleobases by high performance liquid chromatography

Details are given of a new, rapid and simple pre-fractionation method and an isocratic high performance liquid chromatography system suitable for parallel analysis of nucleosides and nucleobases from urine and other biological fluids. The quantitative recovery and excellent reproducibility of the method is demonstrated by analysis of representative standard RNA catabolites. The advantage of this new method for application to biological samples is discussed.     

Bacterial meningitis: an update of new treatment options

The outcome of bacterial meningitis critically depends on the rapid initiation of bactericidal antibiotic therapy and adequate management of septic shock. In community-acquired meningitis, the choice of an optimum initial empirical antibiotic regimen depends on the regional resistance patterns. Pathogens resistant to antibacterials prevail in nosocomial bacterial meningitis. Dexamethasone is recommended as adjunctive therapy for community-acquired meningitis in developed countries. In comatose patients, aggressive measures to lower intracranial pressure <20 mmHg (in particular, external ventriculostomy, osmotherapy and temporary hyperventilation) were effective in a case–control study. Although many experimental approaches were protective in animal models, none of them has been proven effective in patients. Antibiotics, which are bactericidal but do not lyse bacteria, and inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases or complement factor C5 appear the most promising therapeutic options. At present, vaccination is the most efficient method to reduce disease burden. Palmitoylethanolamide appears promising to enhance the resistance of the brain to infections.