小脑后下动脉远端动脉瘤的临床特征及手术治疗

目的探讨小脑后下动脉(PICA)远端动脉瘤的临床特征、诊断及手术治疗方法。方法回顾性分析2008年1月至2010年3月收治的8例PICA远端动脉瘤的临床表现、影像学特征、手术治疗及预后情况。结果所有病例均经显微手术治疗,其中经枕下正中入路手术6例,经枕下远外侧入路手术2例。动脉瘤瘤颈夹闭6例,动脉瘤孤立切除2例;脑室出血急性期行脑室外引流3例。随访3个月至2年,三维CT血管造影复查示5例患者动脉瘤消失,2例因脑积水加重行脑室-腹腔分流术。根据GOS评分,3分1例,4分1例,5分6例。结论 PICA远端动脉瘤以第四脑室内出血或小脑蚓部出血为主要表现,部分病人合并脑积水,诊断需行脑血管造影检查,一旦确诊应尽快手术治疗,效果较好。     

小脑后下动脉瘤的临床特点及CT血管成像的诊断作用

目的 探讨小脑后下动脉瘤的临床特点及CT血管成像(CTA)的诊断作用.方法 回顾性分析11例小脑后下动脉瘤患者的临床及CTA资料.结果 本组患者中表现颅内出血10例,其中第四脑室出血4例、第四脑室合并蛛网膜下腔出血2例、全脑室系统出血1例、小脑半球出血3例;表现为后颅窝占位症状1例.CTA显示动脉瘤位于小脑后下动脉起始部8例、小脑后下动脉远端3例;其中囊状动脉瘤7例,梭形动脉瘤4例.手术所见动脉瘤的部位、形态、大小及其周边结构等与CTA检查结果基本一致.结论 小脑后下动脉瘤多表现为第四脑室出血和小脑出血,CTA可清楚地显示小脑后下动脉瘤,对诊断有重要作用.     

经小脑延髓裂夹闭小脑后下动脉远端动脉瘤

目的探讨经小脑延髓裂入路手术夹闭小脑后下动脉远端动脉瘤的优点及显微手术技巧。方法 23例手术夹闭小脑后下动脉远端动脉瘤均经后颅窝正中开颅,经小脑延髓裂入路,显微镜下夹闭小脑后下动脉远端动脉瘤。结果 23例患者,共33枚动脉瘤,完全夹闭31枚,2枚切除,夹闭率94.9%。无一例手术死亡。结论经小脑延髓裂入路夹闭小脑后下动脉远端动脉瘤,不需切开小脑下蚓部,可有效的清除第四脑室血肿,降低脑压。使血管神经显示更加清楚,不损伤任何小脑组织,能最大限度地减少牵拉血管及神经组织,减少动脉瘤的术中破裂,使手术更安全。术后患者不良反应小。     

经枕下旁正中入路手术治疗小脑后下动脉近端动脉瘤16例

目的探讨小脑后下动脉近端动脉瘤的临床特点及手术方法。方法回顾性分析16例小脑后下动脉近端动脉瘤的临床特点、影像学特征、手术治疗方法及预后。14例为破裂动脉瘤;2例为未破裂动脉瘤,表现为后颅窝占位。入院时患者Hunt—Hess分级：0级2例,Ⅱ级10例,Ⅲ级3例,Ⅳ级1例。头颅CT表现为天幕下为主的蛛网膜下腔出血和／或第四脑室出血,脑血管造影提示小脑后下动脉近端动脉瘤,均采用枕下旁正中入路进行手术。14例行动脉瘤颈夹闭术,2例行孤立术。结果3例术后出现切口一过性脑脊液漏;2例轻度后组颅神经受损,3个月后完全恢复。随访3个月至2年,2例孤立术患者术后偏瘫、后组颅神经麻痹和长期昏迷;其余患者术后恢复良好。结论熟悉小脑后下动脉瘤区域的解剖关系,术中对后组颅神经和小脑后下动脉的有效保护,可明显提高小脑后下动脉近端动脉瘤的手术治疗效果。     

小脑后下动脉瘤的手术治疗

目的 探讨小脑后下动脉瘤的临床特点及手术方法 .方法 回顾性分析21例小脑后下动脉瘤的临床特点、影像学特征及手术方法 .其中男9例,女12例,平均40.6岁.1例表现为后颅窝占位;20例为动脉瘤破裂出血.入院时患者Hunt-Hess分级:Ⅰ级1例,Ⅱ级14例,Ⅲ级5例,Ⅳ级1例.头颅CT表现为幕下为主的蛛网膜下腔出血,或第四脑室出血或二者兼有.脑血管造影提示小脑后下动脉近端动脉瘤13例,远端动脉瘤8例,分别采用枕下旁正中及枕下正中入路进行手术.结果 19例行动脉瘤蒂夹闭术,1例行孤立术,1例行载瘤动脉近端切断术.3例术后出现切口一过性脑脊液漏;1例术后偏瘫、后组脑神经麻痹和长期昏迷,2例轻度后组脑神经受损,3个月后完全恢复;其余患者术后无神经功能损伤或并发症,恢复良好.结论 小脑后下动脉瘤的治疗首选动脉瘤夹闭术,术中保护后组脑神经和后下动脉是手术的关键.     

小脑后下动脉动脉瘤治疗体会

目的探讨小脑后下动脉动脉瘤的治疗方法。方法分别采用动脉瘤栓塞术、动脉瘤夹闭术和血管吻合术联合动脉瘤栓塞术治疗80例小脑后下动脉动脉瘤患者,总结3种手术方式适应证和技术特点。结果 80例患者中行动脉瘤栓塞术49例,手术成功率约为95.92%(47/49);行动脉瘤夹闭术19例,手术成功率为16/19;行枕动脉-小脑后下动脉吻合术联合动脉瘤栓塞术12例,手术成功率为11/12。2例术后死亡,21例出现神经功能缺损症状,其余57例均好转。术后平均随访3.65年,复查CTA或DSA显示7例动脉瘤复发。结论小脑后下动脉动脉瘤栓塞术手术创伤较小、手术时间较短;对于后循环血管迂曲、动脉瘤较小、瘤颈较宽者,动脉瘤夹闭术相对安全且简单易行;对于动脉瘤栓塞术和夹闭术均较困难者,血管吻合术联合动脉瘤栓塞术为最后选择。     

小脑后下动脉瘤破裂的诊断和治疗(附4例报告)

目的　探讨小脑后下动脉瘤破裂的诊断和治疗问题。方法　对有急性出血性卒中表现的４ 例病人行 Ｃ Ｔ 检查, 发现３例脑室系统积血,１ 例小脑半球血肿伴急性梗阻性脑积水,后经脑血管造影确诊为小脑后下动脉瘤破裂,位于延髓段和小脑段各２ 例,分别经显微手术切除或夹闭动脉瘤。结果　４ 例术后复查脑血管造影示动脉瘤消失,随访３ 个月至２ 年,恢复良好。结论　小脑后下动脉瘤有其临床及 Ｃ Ｔ 的特征。急性期危重病人应即行 脑室穿刺外引流术, 待病情稳定 后行进一 步检查和治 疗。 不同类型的 动脉瘤,应采取不同的手术入路和方式。目的　探讨小脑后下动脉瘤破裂的诊断和治疗问题。方法　对有急性出血性卒中表现的４ 例病人行 Ｃ Ｔ 检查, 发现３例脑室系统积血,１ 例小脑半球血肿伴急性梗阻性脑积水,后经脑血管造影确诊为小脑后下动脉瘤破裂,位于延髓段和小脑段各２ 例,分别经显微手术切除或夹闭动脉瘤。结果　４ 例术后复查脑血管造影示动脉瘤消失,随访３ 个月至２ 年,恢复良好。结论　小脑后下动脉瘤有其临床及 Ｃ Ｔ 的特征。急性期危重病人应即行 脑室穿刺外引流术, 待病情稳定 后行进一 步检查和治 疗。 不同类型的 动脉瘤,应采取不同的手术入路和方式。     

前循环巨大动脉瘤的手术治疗

目的 对1985年以来经手术治疗的18例前循环巨大动脉瘤作一回顾性分析,方法 行动脉瘤瘤颈夹闭术11例,动脉瘤孤立或孤立后切除4例,动脉瘤切除或孤立后载瘤动脉重建2例,动脉瘤包裹1例。结果 动脉瘤瘤颈夹闭术的11例病人中,除1例术前Hunt-Hess分级Ⅳ级的病人术后重残外,均恢复良好。动脉瘤孤立或孤立后切除的4例病人中,1例后交通动脉瘤（PCoA)病人虽术前血管造影证实侧支循环充分,但术后出现暂时性对侧轻偏瘫。另1例大脑中动脉（MCA）动脉瘤病人术后第6天因术野血肿再次进行手术,出院时能独立行走。行动脉瘤切除或孤立后载瘤动脉重建的2例病人恢复良好。动脉瘤包裹术的1例病人术后因再出血死亡。结论 为消除巨大动脉瘤的压迫症状和潜在的出血危险,对前循环巨大动脉瘤主张积极的手术治疗。动脉瘤瘤颈夹闭并保留载瘤动脉通畅是首选治疗,对必需行动脉瘤孤立且交叉循环不良的病例,应尽可能重建载瘤动脉。     

后循环动脉瘤显微外科手术治疗

目的 探讨后循环动脉瘤手术适应证和治疗效果.方法 纳入42例共44个后循环动脉瘤,包括基底动脉动脉瘤26例(27个)、椎动脉动脉瘤16例(17个).其中15例分别行颈外动脉-大脑后动脉P2段(4例)、颈内动脉-大脑后动脉P2段(2例)、颌内动脉-大脑后动脉P2段(2例)、椎动脉颅内外段(2例)、枕动脉.小脑后下小动脉(5例)搭桥联合动脉瘤孤立术;余27例行单纯动脉瘤夹闭术.结果 经随访共37例(基底动脉顶端动脉瘤14例、基底动脉主干动脉瘤3例、椎动脉动脉瘤9例、小脑后下动脉动脉瘤5例、大脑后动脉P1～P2段交界处动脉瘤4例、小脑上动脉动脉瘤l例和小脑前下动脉动脉瘤1例)患者恢复正常生活活动能力,无一例发生手术相关性神经功能障碍,恢复良好率达88.09%.其余5例患者,1例(基底动脉顶端动脉瘤)术后出现严重神经功能缺损症状与体征,生活不能自理;2例(1例基底动脉顶端动脉瘤、1例基底动脉主干动脉瘤)因术后发生脑干缺血,围手术期死亡;2例(椎动脉动脉瘤)复发患者经再次治疗康复.结论 对于不宜直接行手术夹闭的后循环动脉瘤,为了避免因夹闭动脉瘤和延长临时阻断载瘤动脉时间而发生术后脑缺血事件.可选择颅内外血管搭桥联合动脉瘤孤立术,以避免动脉瘤夹闭术带来的危险.     

枕动脉-小脑后下动脉搭桥术治疗累及小脑后下动脉的椎动脉瘤

目的探讨枕动脉-小脑后下动脉(OA-PICA)搭桥术治疗累及小脑后下动脉的椎动脉瘤的效果。方法纳入2016年1月至2020年12月在华中科技大学同济医学院附属同济医院诊断与治疗的6例累及小脑后下动脉的椎动脉瘤患者,均行OA-PICA搭桥术,联合同期动脉瘤孤立术、择期血管内介入治疗孤立动脉瘤或择期支架植入术。术中吲哚菁绿荧光血管造影术(ICGA)显示桥血管吻合口通畅,记录住院期间手术相关并发症,术后1～3年复查CTA或DSA评估桥血管吻合口通畅情况,术后1年改良Rankin量表(mRS)评价预后。结果 6例患者均顺利完成OA-PICA搭桥术,术中ICGA均显示桥血管吻合口通畅。1例(例4)同期行动脉瘤孤立术;3例(例1、例3、例5)择期行血管内介入治疗孤立动脉瘤;1例(例2)择期行支架植入术;1例(例6)术前动脉瘤已破裂患者术后10 h发生动脉瘤再出血而死亡。5例生存患者住院期间均未发生手术相关并发症,术后平均随访37个月,复查CTA或DSA均显示桥血管吻合口通畅,术后1年预后良好(mRS评分均为1)。结论 OA-PICA搭桥术是治疗累及小脑后下动脉的椎动脉瘤的有效方法。     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.