姜黄素诱导人胃癌SGC7901细胞自噬性凋亡的研究

目的 观察姜黄素体外诱导人胃癌SGC7901细胞自噬性凋亡的作用,并探讨其可能的作用机制.方法 用不同浓度的姜黄素处理SGC7901细胞,MTT法检测细胞增殖;单丹磺酰尸胺(monodansylcadaverin,MDC)荧光染色和Hoechst33342荧光染色观察细胞自噬和凋亡的发生;流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡率;Western blot检测细胞凋亡相关蛋白NF-κB、自噬相关蛋白Beclin1及LC3Ⅱ的表达.结果 姜黄素可呈剂量依赖性明显抑制SGC7901的生长.MDC染色显示,40μmol/L姜黄素在作用12h后即可诱导SGC7901细胞发生自噬,24 h自噬减少;Hoechst33342荧光染色显示,40μmol/L姜黄素诱导凋亡在24 h最明显;流式细胞术显示,40μmol/L姜黄素作用24h时SGC7901细胞凋亡率明显增加.Western blot检测显示,姜黄素诱导SGC7901细胞自噬性凋亡过程中,凋亡相关蛋白NF-κB、自噬相关蛋白Beclin1及LC3的表达均上调.结论 姜黄素通过诱导自噬性凋亡抑制人胃癌细胞SGC7901的生长,其机制与NF-κB、Beclin1及LC3蛋白的表达上调有关.     

熊果酸对胃癌细胞株SGC-7901的抑制作用

目的：本文通过不同浓度的熊果酸（ursolic acid,UA）作用于人胃癌SGC-7901细胞,探讨UA对其生长的影响。方法：采用体外培养人胃癌细胞株SGC-7901,MIT法观察不同浓度UA对细胞生长的影响;用10μmoL／L,20μmoL／L,40μmoL／L和80μmoL／L不同浓度UA处理SGC-7901细胞12h后,倒置显微镜观察细胞形态变化以及MTT检测细胞的生长情况。结果：在细胞抑制实验中20～40μmoL／L UA可使SGC-7901细胞发生皱缩,40—80μmoL／LuA作用12h后,SGC-7901细胞形态明显变圆,出现不同程度的漂浮;同时MTT实验结果表明,不同浓度的UA能抑制SGC-7901细胞的生长并呈浓度依赖性。结论：UA能够抑制SGC-7901细胞的生长,具有较强的抗肿瘤活性。     

黄芩素对人胆囊癌细胞系SGC996细胞活力及ZFX蛋白表达的干预作用

目的：探讨中药黄芩提取物黄芩素对人胆囊癌的生物效应及机制。方法：将人胆囊癌细胞系SGC996用黄芩素处理48小时,采用MTT法检测治疗后SGC996的细胞活力；通过对透过transwell膜的SGC996细胞进行计数评估黄芩素对胆囊癌侵袭转移能力的影响；通过流式细胞术检测黄芩素处理后,SGC996细胞的凋亡情况并用western blot方法检测细胞锌指X染色体蛋白(zinc finger X-chromosomal protein,ZFX)的表达；结果：对照组,10μmol/L黄芩素组,20μmol/L黄芩素组,40μmol/L黄芩素组,80μmol/L黄芩素组,160μmol/L黄芩素组,320μmol/L黄芩素组对SGC996细胞活力的抑制率分别为0,0.4±0.9,4.2±1.5,19.3±3.8,37.9±5.8,61.6±7.8,84.2±10.2 (p<0.05)。对照组,40μmol/L黄芩素组,80μmol/L黄芩素组,160μmol/L黄芩素组对SGC996细胞的凋亡诱导率分别为0.5±0.5,7.5±1.2,16.3±1.9,31.2±2.8 (p<0.05)；对SGC996细胞转移抑制率分别为0,25.6±6.6,57.3±7.9,84.1±11.9 (p<0.05)。Western blot结果显示黄芩素对ZFX有显著的抑制作用。结论： 黄芩素有良好的抗神经胆囊癌的生物活性,其抗肿瘤效应的机制可能和下调ZFX蛋白有关。     

吲哚美辛体外干预研究胃癌Wnt/β-Catenin信号途径与Caspase-3及Bcl-2关系

目的:研究人胃癌细胞系SGC7901中β-连环蛋白(β-Catenin)与Caspase-3凋亡基因及与Bcl-2原癌基因表达的关系,初步探索肿瘤发生过程中Wnt/β-Catenin通路对细胞凋亡的调节机制.方法:(1)MTT方法检测吲哚美辛抗肿瘤效应;(2)RT-PCR分别检测人胃癌细胞系SGC7901受吲哚美辛干预组和未受干预组中的β-Catenin与Caspase-3及Bcl-2mRNA的表达.结果:吲哚美辛在浓度为50μmol/L时作用24h对人胃癌SGC7901细胞抑制效果不明显,而作用48、72h及浓度为100和200μmol/L时作用24、48、72h的凋亡诱导作用明显,且抑制率呈浓度和时间依赖性;吲哚美辛干预组较未受干预组表现为伴随β-Catenin表达水平降低,Bcl-2表达下调.而Caspase-3的表达上调.结论:人胃癌细胞系SGC7901可能通过Wnt/β-Catenin通路激活Bcl-2原癌基因蛋白表达促进细胞增殖,同时抑制Caspase-3凋亡基因的蛋白表达抑制细胞凋亡,使细胞增殖与凋亡失衡.     

阿魏酸乙酯对胃癌 SGC －7901细胞增殖及凋亡的影响

目的：探讨阿魏酸乙酯（EF）对胃癌 SGC －7901细胞增殖及凋亡的影响。方法体外培养人胃癌SGC －7901细胞,采用不同浓度的 EF 作用 SGC －7901细胞,设置5个复孔,作用24、36、48 h,MTT 法检测细胞的增殖情况;用0和40μg／mL EF 分别作用 SGC －7901细胞24 h,DAPI 染色法观察 SGC －7901细胞形态学变化;另外,采用不同浓度的 EF 作用 SGC －7901细胞24、36和48 h,Annexin V －FITC／PI 法和流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡情况。结果40、80、120、160和200μg／mL 浓度的 EF 分别作用 SGC －7901细胞24、36及48 h,其对 SGC －7901细胞的 IC50分别为158.86、142.48和128.07μg／mL;40μg／mL 的 EF 作用 SGC －7901细胞12 h,经 DAPI 染色,SGC －7901细胞的细胞核固缩,出现凋亡小体;经 Annexin V －FITC／PI 法检测,EF 对 SGC －7901细胞的凋亡有明显的诱导作用,并且随着 EF 作用浓度和时间的增加,凋亡率增加。结论EF 能有效抑制 SGC －7901细胞增殖,并能诱导 SGC －7901细胞凋亡,两种作用均呈浓度和时间依赖性。     

二氢青蒿素联合顺铂对胃癌SGC7901细胞增殖和耐药因子表达的影响

目的探讨二氢青蒿素(DHA)联合顺铂(CDDP)对人胃癌SGC7901细胞增殖和耐药因子表达的影响。方法将体外培养的人胃癌SGC7901细胞株和人胃黏膜上皮细胞GES-1细胞株分为6组,即SGC7901对照组(0.1%二甲基亚砜100μl)、SGC7901 DHA组(25μmol/L DHA 100μl)、SGC7901 CDDP组(2.5μg/ml CDDP 100μl)、SGC7901 DHA+CDDP组(25μmol/L DHA和2.5μg/ml CDDP各100μl)、GES-1对照组(0.1%二甲基亚砜100μl)和GES-1 DHA组(25μmol/L DHA 100μl)。采用磺酰罗丹明染色法检测各组细胞增殖的抑制情况,以光密度(OD)值表示;反转录聚合酶链反应检测耐药因子多药耐药基因1(MDR1)、多药耐药相关蛋白1(MRP1)、拓扑异构酶Ⅱ(TopoⅡ)、谷胱甘肽转移酶-π(GST-π)、B细胞淋巴瘤/白血病蛋白-2(Bcl-2)、Bcl-2相关X蛋白(Bax)mRNA水平,以各目的基因片段密度值/内参照β-actin密度值表示;蛋白质印迹法检测上述耐药因子蛋白水平,以各目的蛋白条带吸光度值/内参照β-actin吸光度值表示。结果 SGC7901对照组、SGC7901 DHA组、SGC7901CDDP组、SGC7901 DHA+CDDP组OD值分别为(0.77±0.14)、(0.58±0.13)、(0.52±0.12)、(0.30±0.05),差异有统计学意义(F=18.71,P<0.05);SGC7901 DHA组、SGC7901 CDDP组及SGC7901 DHA+CDDP组OD值与SGC7901对照组比较,差异亦有统计学意义(t值分别为3.60、4.05和6.81,P<0.05)。GES-1对照组OD值为(0.79±0.13),GES-1 DHA组为(0.78±0.12),差异无统计学意义(t=-1.24,P>0.05)。SGC7901对照组、SGC7901 DHA组、SGC7901 CDDP组、SGC7901 DHA+CDDP组各耐药因子mRNA和蛋白水平比较,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05);SGC7901 DHA组、SGC7901 CDDP组及SGC7901 DHA+CDDP组MDR1、MRP1、GST-π、Bcl-2mRNA和蛋白水平较SGC7901对照组降低,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05);TopoⅡ和Bax mRNA和蛋白水平较SGC7901对照组升高,差异亦有统计学意义(P<0.05)。GES-1对照组与GES-1 DHA组各耐药因子mRNA和蛋白水平比较,差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论 DHA对胃癌SGC7901细胞生长具有明显的抑制作用,可增强化疗药物CDDP对SGC7901细胞增殖抑制作用,并能通过不同途径特异性抑制胃癌SGC7901细胞耐药因子的表达。     

Iressa抑制胃癌SGC-7901细胞生长的研究

目的:探讨iressa对胃癌SGC.7901细胞增殖,细胞周期和细胞凋亡的影响。方法:用四氮甲唑蓝(MTT)法检测不同浓度iressa对胃癌SGC-7901细胞增殖的影响;用流式细胞仪检测不同浓度iressa对胃癌SGC-7901细胞周期分布和细胞凋亡的影响。结果:在5~20μmol/L浓度范围内,iressa对SGC-7901的生长具有明显的抑制作用,并呈时间和剂量依赖性。10μmol/L和20μol/L的iressa可以导致SGC-7901细胞Gl期阻滞,并引起细胞凋亡。结论:Iressa可改变SGC-7901细胞周期分布,诱导细胞凋亡,从而抑制细胞增殖。     

1-三氯甲基-l,2,3,4-四氢化-β-咔啉(TaClo)介导的体外培养多巴胺能神经元凋亡及其机制

目的研究TaC lo介导体外培养多巴胺能神经元细胞凋亡及其机制。方法分别用不同浓度的TaC lo(50、100、200、500、1 000μm o l/L)对原代神经元-胶质细胞混合培养和原代神经元培养的细胞进行干预,作用72h,细胞酪氨酸羟化酶(tyrosine hydroxy lase,TH)免疫细胞化学染色后多巴胺神经元计数;分别用浓度为50和200μm o l/L的TaC lo干预混合培养的细胞,作用1、24h后,W estern-b lot法测Caspase-3蛋白表达。结果 TaC lo作用后多巴胺能神经元数量明显下降,50μm o l/L浓度的TaC lo诱发40%的多巴胺能神经元死亡;当TaC lo浓度为200μm o l/L时,接近90%的多巴胺能神经元死亡(P<0.01、P<0.001);TaC lo(50、100、200μm o l/L)诱导的多巴胺能神经元死亡具有明显的剂量依赖性,结果有统计学意义(P<0.001)。W estern-b lot显示,TaC lo作用2个时间点,Caspase-3表达增高,表达均具有药物剂量依赖性。结论 TaC lo可以导致多巴胺能神经元凋亡,这一过程是通过活化的caspase-3蛋白表达等通路完成的。     

西兰花中葡萄糖异硫氰酸盐诱导人胃腺癌SGC-7901细胞凋亡的初步研究

目的探讨对西兰花中葡萄糖异硫氰酸盐(glucosinolates,GS)诱导人胃腺癌SGC-7901细胞凋亡的作用及其可能机制。方法不同质量浓度GS处理人胃腺癌SGC-7901细胞,通过SRB法、细胞形态学观察、流式细胞仪和激光共聚焦显微镜实验,观察GS对SGC-7901细胞的抑制率,对细胞凋亡和细胞周期的影响。结果1、10、100、1000μg/mL的GS作用于SGC-7901细胞72h后,抑制了SGC-7901细胞的增殖,其IC50为187.723μg/mL;300μg/mL的GS作用SGC-7901细胞24h后,细胞出现早期凋亡的形态;300、600、1200μg/mL的GS作用于SGC-7901细胞24h后,可见细胞凋亡率分别为(14.54±6.69)%、(10.11±6.25)%、(34.12±13.29)%,并且G2期细胞数目减少至0,对细胞周期有影响;100、200、300μg/mL的GS作用于SGC-7901细胞24h后,细胞内的Ca2 浓度升高,且随着GS给药剂量的增加而升高。结论GS能够促进人胃腺癌SGC-7901细胞凋亡,影响细胞周期,此作用可能是GS升高细胞内Ca2 的浓度而达到的。     

NF-κB活化及livin,survivin表达上调与胃癌细胞耐药的关系

目的:探讨核转录调节因子NF-κB活性及凋亡抑制蛋白livin, survivin的表达与胃癌细胞耐药的关系.方法:MTT法检测化疗药物长春新碱(VCR)对胃癌细胞SGC7901及耐药细胞SGC7901/VCR的生长抑制作用;流式细胞仪检测VCR作用后细胞的凋亡率;ELISA法检测NF-κB核转录活性;Western blot检测livin, survivin蛋白表达.结果:化疗药VCR对SGC7901/VCR细胞的生长抑制作用较SGC7901细胞显著降低,VCR作用SGC7901/VCR细胞的凋亡率减少;SGC7901/VCR细胞中NF-KB核转录活性增强(P<0.01);livin, survivin在SGC7901/VCR细胞中表达上调(P<0.05).结论:胃癌细胞SGC7901在化疗药VCR长期诱导后产生的继发耐药可能与NF-κB活化及livin, survivin表达上调有关;NF-κB活化是livin, survivin表达上调可能的调控因素.     

Value of D-Dimers in patients with acute aortic dissection

Objective: To evaluatel the value of D-dimers in patients with acute aortic dissection (AAD). Methods: This study consisted of 16 patients with AAD and 27 non-AAD patients. Serum D-dimets were measured by Sta-Liatest D-DI immunoturbidimetric assay. Results: D-dimer level was higher (P ＜ 0.001) in patients with AAD(7.91 ± 5.52 μg/ml) than that in non- AAD group(1.57±1.24 μg/ml). D-dimer was positive (＞0.4 μg/ml) in all patients with AAD and in 10 control group patients (37%). Among patients with acute AAD, D-dimers tended to be higher in Stanford A than in Stanford B (8.67 ± 4.31 μg/ml vs. 3.24±1.27 μg/ml, P ＜0.01). D-dimer values tended to be higher in more extended disease(3.84 ± 1.65 μg/ml, 8.57 ± 3.58 μg/ml and 11.87 ± 5.69 μg/ml in thoracic aorta, thoracic and abdominal aorta, thoracic and abdominal aorta and iliacal arteries, respectively, P ＜ 0.05 for both 8.57 ± 3.58 and 11.87 ± 5.69 vs. 3.84 ± 1.65 ). Including the control group into the analysis, we found a sensitivity of 100%, a negative predictive value of 100%, and a specificity of 66% and a positive predictive value of 64% for D-dimer in diagnosis of AAD in our patients with suspected AAD. Conclusion: D-dimer was elevated in patients with AAD. A negative D-dimer test result could be useful in excluding AAD.     

Research of combined liver-kidney transplantation model in rats

Objective： To set up a simple and reliable rat model of combined liver-kidney transplantation. Methods： SD rats served as both donors and recipients. 4℃ sodium lactate Ringer＇s was infused from portal veins to donated livers,and from abdominal aorta to donated kidneys, respectively. Anastomosis of the portal vein and the inferior vena cava （IVC） inferior to the right kidney between the graft and the recipient was performed by a double cuff method, then the superior hepatic vena cava with suture. A patch of donated renal artery was anastomosed to the recipient abdominal aorta. The urethra and bile duct were reconstructed with a simple inside bracket. Results： Among 65 cases of combined liver-kidney transplantation, the success rate in the late 40 cases was 77.5%. The function of the grafted liver and kidney remained normal. Conclusion： This rat model of combined liver-kidney transplantation can be established in common laboratory conditions with high success rate and meet the needs of renal transplantation experiment.     

BLOOD PRESSURE CHANGE WITH AGE IN SALT-SENSITIVE TEENAGERS

Objective To observe blood pressure change with age in salt-sensitive teenagers whose salt sensitivity were determined by repeated testing.Methods Salt sensitivity was determined through intravenous infusion of normal saline combined with volume-depletion by oral diuretic furosemide in 55 teenagers. After five years, salt sensitivity was re-examined and subject blood pressure was followed up. Blood pressure changes in salt-sensitive teenagers were compared to that of non-salt sensitive teenagers over five years.Results After 5 years, the repetition rate of salt sensitivity determined by intravenous saline loading is 92.7%. In teenagers with salt sensitivity on the baseline, both the systolic blood pressure increments and increment rates were much higher than non-salt sensitive teenagers (12.7±12.1 mmHg vs. 2.8±5.2 mmHg, P＜ 0.01; 12.2%± 12.0% vs. 2.5% ±4.4%, P＜ 0.001,respectively). There was a similar trend for diastolic blood pressure (8.4 ± 6.4 mmHg vs. 3.7 ± 6.4 mmHg, P = 0.052; 13.2% ±10.6 % vs. 6.8%± 10.1%, P = 0.053, respectively).Conclusions Salt sensitivity determined by intravenous saline loading showed good reproducibility. Blood pressure increments with age were much higher in salt-sensitive teenagers than non-salt sensitive teenagers, especially in terms of systolic blood pressure.     

APPLICATION OF LORNOXICAM TO PATIENT-CONTROLLED ANALGESIA IN PATIENTS UNDERGOING ABDOMINAL SURGERIES

FOR anesthesiologis s ,treatingpostoperativepainhas alwaysbeen a problem.Althoughopioidshave been provedtobe effective,theirsideeffectscouldnotbeignored.With thedevelopmentofscienceand pharmacology,many drugs with aspectsof satisfactoryanalgesicefficacyand couldbe welltoleratedby patientshave been developed.And lornoxicamisone of them, which isa non-steroidalanti-inflammatorydrug (NSAID ), with analgesic, anti-infl-ammatory,andantipyreticproperties.Itseliminationhalf-time(3 to 5 hours) isle…     

安心颗粒对急诊经皮冠状动脉介入术后生活质量影响的研究

目的：评价使用安心颗粒对急诊经皮冠状动脉介入术（PPCI）术后生活质量的影响.方法：将160例接受PPCI的急性ST段抬高型心肌梗死患者随机分为安心颗粒组（术前顿服安心颗粒8.8g,术后安心颗粒4.4 g/次,每日2次）和对照组（仅接受基础药物治疗）.所有患者均服用阿司匹林、氯吡格雷和阿托伐他汀.分别在入院时、出院前1d、出院后180 d时,应用心肌梗死多维度量表（MIDAS）、中文版SF-36评价量表对患者生活质量评分.并观察术后30 d以内的出血并发症、血小板减少症发生情况.结果：入院时和出院前1d,两组患者的心肌梗死MIDAS、SF-36量表评分比较无差异（P＞0.05）;出院后180 d时,与对照组比较,安心颗粒组MIDAS、SF-36评分明显减低（P＜0.05）;组内与入院时比较,两组出院前1d、出院后180 d时,MIDAS、SF-36评分均降低（P＜0.05）.两组患者在随访期间均无大量出血、少量出血、重度和极重度血小板减少症发生,安心颗粒组有4例、对照组有7例发生不明显出血（P＞0.05）.两组发生轻度血小板减少症的患者数比较无差异（P＞0.05）.结论：PPCI使用安心颗粒,能改善急性ST段抬高型心肌梗死患者的生活质量,且不增加出血风险.     

The comparative studies of the influences of Urapidil and Nicardipine on sino-atrial node function, atrio-ventricular node function and hemodynamics

Objective:To investigate the influences of urapidil and nicardipine on rabbit sinus function,atrio-ventricular node function and hemodynamics.Methods:Thirty-two Angora's rabbits were selected and randomly divided into four groups.U1 group:urapidil 0.25 mg/kg;U2 group:urapidil 0.5 mg/kg;N1 group:nicardipine 10 μg/kg;N2 group:nicardipine 20 μg/kg.All these medicine were administrated within 30 seconds.Measurements were taken before and after the administration of urapidil or nicardipine for the following data:mean blood pressure(MAP),heart rate(HR),sino-atrial conduction time(SACT),maximal sinoatrial recovery time(SNRTmax)corrected sinus node recovery time(CSNRT),index of sinus node recovery time(SNRTI),Wenckebach A-V conduction frequency (WB),and P-R interval.Results:Significant MAP and HR changes were identified in all of the four groups before and after administration of both urapidil and nicardipine.No significant changes could be found in the rest of the parameters.Intergroup analysis showed that SACT and CSNRT of N1 and N2 groups were shorter than those of the U2 group(P＜0.01);the MAP decreased(P＜0.01)and the HR increased drastically(P＜0.01).Conclusions:Neither urapidil(0.25 mg/kg,0.5 mg/kg)nor nicardipine(10μg/kg,20μg/kg)has any significant influence on rabbit sinus function or rabbit atrio-ventricular node function.Nicardipine could be a better choice than urapidil for parafunctional sinus node patients.     

Dynamic Changes in Serum Estradiol and Progesterone levels in Patients of Premenstrual Syndrome with Adverse Flow of Liver-qi

Objective:To probe into the influence of changes of ovarian hormones on the pathogenesis of the specific sub-type premenstrual syndrome(PMS)and reveal partial microcosmic mechanisms of adverse flow of liver-qi.Methods:Estradiol(E2)and progesterone(P)levels in serum were determined at different phases of menstrual cycle by radioimmunoassay.Results:In the group of PMS with adverse flow of liver-qi.the secretive peak value Of E2 and P at the follicular phase significantly decreased,and the secretive peak value at the luteal phase did not come into being.Conclusions:Low E2 and P secretive peak at the follicular phase and absence of secretive peak at the luteal phase is one of the microcosmic mechanisms of PMS with adverse flow of liver-qi.One of the pathophysiologic mechanisms of specific sub-type PMS is probably the continuous low level of E2and P.     

Real-time Three-dimensional Echocardiography in Assessment of Left Ventricular and Right Ventricular Volumes

Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography (RT3DE)is a new ultrasound technique that enables dynamic threedimensional visualization and quantification of the heart in real time. Investigation of feasibility and methodology of RT3DE in determining left ventricular (LV) and right ventricular (RV) volumes, RT3DE was performed in 35 normal adults using Philips SONOS 7500 system with a 2-4 MHz matrix array transducer. The 60°×60° "pyramid" volume database was obtained and analyzed on a TomTec echo workstation. Both LV and RV volumes were calculated with four 3DE methods (i.e. apical 2, 4, 8, and 16-plane) through manually tracing ventricular endocardial borders in end diastole and end systole. Stroke volumes were then calculated. LV volume was also measured by 2DE Simpson's rule using GE VIVID 7 ultrasound machine.     

SCREENING FOR A 21-CHROMOSOME ABNORMALITY IN PREIMPLANTED EMBRYOS OF ELDERLY WOMEN

Increasing maternal age is the only etiological factor unequivocally linked to Down's syndrome in humans. The occurrence rate of newborns with Down's syndrome is about 1/220 in women over 35 years old. However, the occurrence rate in embryos fertilized in vitro, of the elder woman is unclear. Using FISH we screened the number of chromosome 21 in preimplanted embryos of 5 elderly women (average age, 38.4 years) to study the feasibility and necessity of screening trisomy 21 in embryos in patients over 35 years old at the in vitro fertilization (IVF) center.     

Scientific principles and rigorous processes should be followed in developing clinical guidelines for therapeutic interventions of integrative medicine

A clinical guideline for the therapeutic interventions of integrative medicine may be defined as a written document which states a series of recommendations on therapeutic interventions of integrative medicine for a special disease or condition. The guideline may provide assistance to medical professionals in making clinical decisions aimed at improving the clinical outcome of patients and reducing the costs of medical care（~＇4~. Recommendations issued by a guideline should be based on the best available evidence in both Western and Chinese medicine. For fulfilling this purpose, the development of clinical guidelines for therapeutic interventions in the field of integrative medicine should follow scientific principles and undergo a rigorous processes.