Effects of gender difference and birth order on perceived parenting styles, measured by the EMBU scale, in Japanese two-sibling subjects

The relationship between Egna Minnen av Barndoms Uppforstran (EMBU) scaling and gender, birth order and parents' gender was previously investigated in a large volunteer sample; significant interactions among the variables were found. In the present study, 730 Japanese volunteers with one sibling were used as subjects in order to control the number of siblings: the effect of gender of subjects and siblings and birth order on the perceived parenting style was examined. Based on gender and birth orders, 730 subjects were grouped into the following categories: (i) male with a younger brother; (ii) male with a younger sister; (iii) male with an older brother; (iv) male with an older sister; (v) female with a younger brother; (vi) female with a younger sister; (vii) female with an older brother; and (viii) female with an older sister. One-way ANOVA was performed with each EMBU subscale used as a dependent variable and these eight groups as independent variables. The scores for rejection and emotional warmth of father were influenced significantly by the pattern of siblings (P<0.006 and P<0.0012, respectively), and scores for emotional warmth of mother were influenced significantly by the pattern of siblings (P<0.0012). The elder male children strongly experienced parenting style as more rejecting than others, and female children (elder sisters with brother, or younger sisters with sister) recognized parenting style as more caring and demonstrated more warmth than others. The results confirmed a significant interaction of gender of subjects and siblings and birth order of perceived parental rearing behavior.     

民办高校大学生人格特征与父母养育方式的关系研究

目的 探讨高职大学生人格特征与父母养育方式的关系,为高校开展心理健康教育工作提供科学依据.方法 用父母养育方式量表（EMBU）和艾森克人格问卷（EPQ）对273名大学生生进行问卷调查.结果 EPQ测量结果显示文科生在精神质（P）维度得分显著低于理科生（P＜0.01）男生精神质（P）维度得分显著高于女生（P＜0.01）,大二学生在神经质（N）得分显著高于大一学生（P＜0.01）.内外向（E）维度与父亲情感温暖与理解（f1）、母亲情感温暖与理解（m1）、母亲偏爱被试（m5）呈正相关（P＜0.01）;精神质（P）与父亲情感温暖与理解（f1）、母亲情感温暖与理解（m1）呈负相关（P＜0.01）,与父亲惩罚严厉（f2）、父亲过分干涉（f3）、父亲拒绝否认（f5）、母亲拒绝否认（m3）、母亲严厉惩罚（m4）呈正相关（P＜0.05）;神经质（N）与父亲情感温暖与理解（f1）、母亲情感温暖与理解（m1）呈负相关（P＜0.01）,与父亲过度保护（f6）、母亲过分干涉及过度保护（m2）、母亲惩罚严厉（m4）呈正相关（P＜0.05）.父亲惩罚、严厉（f2）、母亲惩罚、严厉（m4）进入精神质（P）回归方程;母亲情感温暖与理解（m1）进入内外向（E）回归方程;父亲情感温暖与理解（f1）,母亲过度干涉、过度保护（m2）进入神经质（N）回归方程.结论 大学生父母养育方式对其人格形成有显著影响.     

独生子女情感障碍患者心理防御机制与人格特征及父母教养方式的研究

目的为探讨独生子女情感障碍患者人格、心理防御机制及父母教养方式的关系。方法采用艾森克个性问卷（EPQ）、防御方式问卷（DSQ）、父母教养方式评价量表（EMBU）对住院的100例独生子女情感障碍患者和正常独生子女进行测评,其中患者在自知力恢复以后测评。结果独生子女情感障碍患者更多地使用投射、抱怨、幻想、退缩、躯体化等不成熟的防御机制,EPQ得分精神质、神经质、内外倾性高于正常独生子女（P〈0．01）,相关分析发现,精神质、神经质与不成熟防御机制、中间防御机制呈正相关,内外倾性与成熟防御机制呈正相关,独生子女情感障碍患者的父母惩罚、父母拒绝、父亲保护、母亲干涉因子分高于正常独生子女（P〈0．01）,而父亲温暖因子低于正常独生子女,相关分析发现,父母惩罚、父母拒绝、父母干涉、父亲保护与不成熟防御机制正相关,而父母温暖与不成熟防御机制负相关。结论独生子女情感障碍患者多使用不成熟防御机制、不良的父母教养方式,存在个性缺陷,且三者之间密切相关。     

南通市青少年网络成瘾现状及与父母教养方式的关系

目的 了解南通市青少年网络成瘾现状及与父母教养方式之间的关系,为预防和干预青少年网瘾提供理论依据.方法 采用自制一般情况调查表、Young网络成瘾问卷(IAII)、父母养育方式评价量表(EMBU),对分层、随机抽样收集的3400例中小学生进行调查,小学生、初中生、高中生实际人数比为3∶2∶1.结果 (1)南通市青少年上网率92.14％,男生高于女生(P＜0.05);(2)网络成瘾现患率3.29％,男生高于女生(P＜0.01);(3)初中生和高中生网络成瘾的现患率明显高于小学生 (P＜0.01);(4)学习成绩差的网瘾率明显高于成绩较好和成绩中等者(P＜0.01);(5)成瘾组的EM-BU父母严厉惩罚、过分干涉、拒绝否认、过度保护因子分均显著高于非成瘾组(P＜0.01),而父母的情感温暖因子分非成瘾组显著高于成瘾组(P＜0.01).结论 南通市青少年网络成瘾与父母教养方式密切相关,须引起重视.     

Factor analysis of the EMBU scale in a large sample of Japanese volunteers.

OBJECTIVE: The EMBU (Egna Minnen av Barndoms Uppfostran; (one's memories of upbringing') is a convenient and reliable instrument for the assessment of parental attitudes. The aim of the present study was to investigate the extent to which the factor structure of the EMBU, obtained in previous investigations, could be retrieved in a large Japanese sample. METHOD: The EMBU scale was administered to 1320 healthy Japanese volunteers. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were performed. RESULTS: The first factor in the analysis, accounting for 9.9% (father) and 10.6% (mother) of the variance, consisted of rejection items. The second factor, accounting for 9.1% (father) and 8.6% (mother) of the variance, contained items relating to emotional warmth. The third factor appeared to represent overprotection, and accounted for 7.8% (father) and 7.8% (mother) of the variance. The fourth factor, which accounted for 3.7% (father) and 3.7% (mother) of the variance, included items classified under favouring subjects. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that this four-factor structure fitted our data very well for both the father and the mother. The results of factor analysis for four subscales showed three major factors for the EMBU. CONCLUSION: The results of this study confirmed that the EMBU yielded a factor structure in Japan similar to that found in European countries. The EMBU is useful for comparison of parenting attitudes in different societies or countries.     

Parental rearing and individual vulnerability to drug addiction: A controlled study in a Swedish sample

In a convenience sample of 81 healthy subjects vs. a group of 81 heroin addicts from the Methadone program in Stockholm, Sweden, the hypothesis of a possible link between experiences of dysfunctional parental rearing and the subsequent development of dysfunctional assumptions concerning self and others was tested. The subjects (n=162) completed the EMBU to report perceptions of parental rearing behaviour, two measures of dysfunctional assumptions and dysfunctional working models, the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS) and the DWM-S, and the Screening Drug Career Questionnaire (SDCQ) for assessing different aspects of the drug career in the sample of addicts. Four predictions were made: 1) parental emotional warmth should be negatively correlated with DAS and DWM-S scores; 2) experiences of dysfunctional parental rearing activities should be correlated with high scores on the DAS and the DWM-S; 3) there should be significant differences between the group of addicts and the control group on the EMBU first-order factors Rejection, Emotional warmth, Overprotection, and on the EMBU midparent subscale and finally 4) the results should support the hypothesis of an overprotecting mother and a rejecting father. The four predictions were supported by the results. The inter-group differences in quality of rearing shown in this study support the assumption of the impact of parental rearing on the development of dysfunctional working models of self and others. Accordingly, the presented data confirm that a parental rearing behaviour perceived both as Rejecting and Overprotective represents a link between dysfunctional parenting and the development of maladaptive psychosocial behaviour like drug addiction.     

Parental rearing and individual vulnerability to drug addiction: a controlled study in a Swedish sample

In a convenience sample of 81 healthy subjects vs. a group of 81 heroin addicts from the Methadone program in Stockholm, Sweden, the hypothesis of a possible link between experiences of dysfunctional parental rearing and the subsequent development of dysfunctional assumptions concerning self and others was tested. The subjects (n=162) completed the EMBU to report perceptions of parental rearing behaviour, two measures of dysfunctional assumptions and dysfunctional working models, the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS) and the DWM-S, and the Screening Drug Career Questionnaire (SDCQ) for assessing different aspects of the drug career in the sample of addicts. Four predictions were made: 1) parental emotional warmth should be negatively correlated with DAS and DWM-S scores; 2) experiences of dysfunctional parental rearing activities should be correlated with high scores on the DAS and the DWM-S; 3) there should be significant differences between the group of addicts and the control group on the EMBU first-order factors Rejection, Emotional warmth, Overprotection, and on the EMBU midparent subscale and finally 4) the results should support the hypothesis of an overprotecting mother and a rejecting father. The four predictions were supported by the results. The inter-group differences in quality of rearing shown in this study support the assumption of the impact of parental rearing on the development of dysfunctional working models of self and others. Accordingly, the presented data confirm that a parental rearing behaviour perceived both as Rejecting and Overprotective represents a link between dysfunctional parenting and the development of maladaptive psychosocial behaviour like drug addiction.     

社交焦虑障碍患者父母养育方式分析

目的：探讨社交焦虑障碍（SAD）患者的发病与父母养育方式的关系。方法：采用自编社会人口学资料调查表、父母养育方式量表（EMBU）对30例SAD患者（患者组）和30名正常人（对照组）进行评估;以Liebowitz社交焦虑量表（LSAS）≥38分为界,评估SAD的严重程度。结果：患者组LSAS评分平均（78.0±27.8）分显著高于对照组的（22.2±9.0）分,两组比较差异有统计学意义（χ2=10.477,P〈0.01）。患者组EMBU中父亲的拒绝、否认因子分和过度保护因子分平均（11.10±3.93）分和（10.77±2.57）分显著高于对照组的（8.67±1.97）分和（9.30±1.77）分（t=3.035、2.578,P〈0.01或P〈0.05）;父亲的情感温暖、理解因子分和偏爱被试因子分平均（43.30±11.45）分和（10.50±2.91）分显著低于对照组的（51.20±8.10）分和（12.87±5.43）分（t=3.085、2.104,P〈0.01或P〈0.05）。母亲的拒绝、否认因子分平均（13.93±5.34）分显著高于对照组的（11.33±2.26）分（t=2.457,P〈0.05）,母亲的情感温暖、理解因子分和偏爱被试因子分平均为（43.07±12.07）分和（10.50±2.91）分显著低于对照组的（51.53±8.26）分和（12.87±5.43）分（t=3.170、2.104,P〈0.01或P〈0.05）。结论：SAD的发生与父母养育方式有关,不良的父母养育方式可能是SAD的发病原因之一。     

社交恐怖障碍患者的父母养育方式和自我接纳

目的:探讨社交恐怖障碍患者的父母养育方式和自我接纳的特点。方法:对49例社交恐怖障碍患者和49例正常对照者进行一般社会人口学资料、父母养育方式评价量表(EMBU)和自我接纳问卷(SAQ)测评。结果:与正常对照组相比,社交恐怖障碍患者父母更少情感温暖、理解(P<0.01),母亲更多拒绝、否认和更少偏爱被试(P<0.05);逐步判别分析显示,母亲的温暖、理解具有统计学判别意义(P<0.01);社交恐怖障碍患者的自我接纳和自我评价显著低于正常组(P<0.01)。结论:社交恐怖障碍患者自我接纳程度低,父母养育方式中较少情感温暖、理解;母亲的情感温暖、理解可能与社交恐怖障碍有关。     

品行障碍患儿父母养育方式及应付方式的研究

目的:探讨父母养育方式对品行障碍患儿的应付方式的影响。方法:采用父母养育方式评价量表(EMBU)及应付方式问卷(CSQ)对46例品行障碍患儿和46名正常儿童为对照进行评估,并对父母养育方式与应付方式作相关分析。结果:品行障碍组患儿父母的情感温暖因子分明显低于对照组,而其他各项因子分(除父母的偏爱被试及父亲的过分干涉、过度保护外)则均明显高于对照组(P<0.05或P<0.01);品行障碍组解决问题评分明显低于对照组,而自责、求助、幻想、退避因子分则明显高于对照组(P<0.01);品行障碍组解决问题、求助与父母的情感温暖因子呈正相关,而与其他各项因子呈负相关;自责、退避与父母的情感温暖因子呈负相关,而与其他各项因子呈正相关。结论:品行障碍患儿多采用消极的应付方式,与父母的养育方式明显相关。     

首发青少年抑郁症与父母养育方式和自我接纳的关系研究

目的了解父母养育方式和自我接纳与首次发病青少年抑郁症的关系。方法对52例首次抑郁发作的青少年患者和214例正常对照者进行一般社会人口学资料表、父母养育方式评价量表(EMBU)和自我接纳问卷(SAQ)测评。结果与正常对照组相比,青少年抑郁症患者的父母更少情感温暖、理解(P<0.01),母亲有更多的拒绝、否认和更少偏爱被试(P<0.05);逐步判别分析显示,母亲的温暖、理解具有统计学判别意义(P<0.01);抑郁症青少年的自我接纳和自我评价显著低于正常青少年(P<0.01)。结论父母养育方式和自我接纳程度低与青少年抑郁发病相关;母亲的情感温暖、理解对青少年抑郁症的影响最大。     

The relationship of parenting style to self-reported mental health among two subcultures of Chinese.

The results of this investigation with 127 youths (aged 16-22 years) from mainland China supported the association of recalled parent's styles (assessed by the EMBU) with adolescents' self-evaluated health status (measured by the SCL-90). Many psychosomatic symptoms and lower scores on indexes of general mental health were significantly related to higher levels of parental rejection and denial, punishing tendency, overprotection and overinvolvement and to lower levels of parental emotional warmth and comprehension. The association between parenting style and mental health status of adolescents can be generalized across genders and across the two Chinese subcultures studied (Han and Kejia ethnical groups) with moderate to fairly high confidence. The mental health status of participants suggests some differences between different subcultures or genders on several variables of the SCL-90.     

Externalizing behaviors in preadolescents: familial risk to externalizing behaviors and perceived parenting styles

The aim was to investigate the contribution of familial risk to externalizing behaviors (FR-EXT), perceived parenting styles, and their interactions to the prediction of externalizing behaviors in preadolescents. Participants were preadolescents aged 10–12 years who participated in TRAILS, a large prospective population-based cohort study in the Netherlands (N = 2,230). Regression analyses were used to determine the relative contribution of FR-EXT and perceived parenting styles to parent and teacher ratings of externalizing behaviors. FR-EXT was based on lifetime parental externalizing psychopathology and the different parenting styles (emotional warmth, rejection, and overprotection) were based on the child’s perspective. We also investigated whether different dimensions of perceived parenting styles had different effects on subdomains of externalizing behavior. We found main effects for FR-EXT (vs. no FR-EXT), emotional warmth, rejection, and overprotection that were fairly consistent across rater and outcome measures. More specific, emotional warmth was the most consistent predictor of all outcome measures, and rejection was a stronger predictor of aggression and delinquency than of inattention. Interaction effects were found for FR-EXT and perceived parental rejection and overprotection; other interactions between FR-EXT and parenting styles were not significant. Correlations between FR-EXT and perceived parenting styles were absent or very low and were without clinical significance. Predominantly main effects of FR-EXT and perceived parenting styles independently contribute to externalizing behaviors in preadolescents, suggesting FR-EXT and parenting styles to be two separate areas of causality. The relative lack of gene–environment interactions may be due to the epidemiological nature of the study, the preadolescent age of the subjects, the measurement level of parenting and the measurement level of FR-EXT, which might be a consequence of both genetic and environmental factors.     

Development of a new inventory for assessing memories of parental rearing behaviour

A new inventory (EMBU) to assess the own memories of parental rearing behaviour was constructed. EMBU is comprised of 81 questions grouped in 15 subscales and two additional questions referring to consistency and strictness of parental rearing behaviour to be answered in a four-step scale for the father and for the mother separately. The subscales cover such rearing practices as for example overinvolvement, affection, overprotectiveness, guilt engendering, rejection. 152 healthy subjects of both sexes (108 males and 44 females) completed the inventory. The item analysis showed that both parents attained similar scores in about half of the questions. Fathers scored higher in items referring to strictness, punishment and a low degree of involvement wheareas mothers scored higher in items referring to involvement and affection. A principal component factor analysis permitted the hypothesized subscales to be identified. An analysis of the internal consistency of the subscales revealed a high frequency of significant internal correlations. A principal component factor analysis of the total scores of the 15 subscales allowed three main dimensions of rearing behaviour to be identified quite close to those reported in similar studies in the literature where other scales had been used.     

精神分裂症患者父母教养方式的研究

目的　了解精神分裂症患者父母教养方式的特点。方法　采用父母教养方式问卷中文版 ,对 60例符合CCMD 2 R诊断的精神分裂症患者和 60例正常健康人进行测试。结果　与正常对照组相比 ,精神分裂症患者父母多表现为低情感温暧与理解 (P <0 0 5) ,高惩罚、严厉和高拒绝、否认 (P <0 .0 5或P <0 .0 1 )。结论　父母不当的教养方式在精神分裂症发病中起着重要作用。     

儿童时期父母教养方式对躯体化障碍人格特征的影响

目的探讨躯体化障碍的人格特征及父母教养方式对躯体化障碍人格特征的影响。方法 56例躯体化障碍患者和56例正常对照者进行父母教养方式评价量表(EUMB)和艾森克个性问卷(EPQ)测评,将所得结果进行分析。结果 (1)躯体化障碍组的EPQ-E和EPQ-N分、EPQ-L分均明显高于正常对照组(P<0.01);(2)与正常对照组相比,躯体化障碍组父母有更少的情感温暖和理解(P<0.01),母亲有更少的过度干涉、过度保护和偏爱被试(P<0.05);(3)父母的情感温暖、理解因子、母亲的偏爱被试因子分与EPQ-E呈正相关(P<0.05);父母的情感温暖、理解因子及母亲的过分干涉、过度保护因子与EPQ-N呈负相关,母亲的拒绝、否认因子与EPQ-N呈正相关(P<0.05);母亲的过分干涉、过度保护因子及拒绝、否认因子与EPQ-L呈正相关(P<0.05)。结论躯体化障碍患者存在一定的人格问题,表现为外倾、神经质;父母的教养方式与躯体化障碍的形成有关,个体童年时期经历过多父母对其情感上的忽视、被拒绝、压抑与躯体化障碍人格的形成有关。     

边缘型人格障碍的亲附类型及其父母养育方式的研究

目的探讨边缘型人格障碍(Borderline Personality D isorder,BPD)的亲附类型及该人格障碍的父母养育方式。方法收集BPD病例30例,采用成人亲附量表、父母养育方式问卷测量工具。结果BPD组与对照组相比,在安全和不安全类型分布上差异有统计学意义。BPD组男性与女性在安全型和不安全型的分布上没有显著差异。BPD组父亲和母亲的情感温暖因子分值明显低于对照组;惩罚严厉,拒绝否认2个因子分值明显高于对照组;差异均有显著性。结论BPD亲附类型以不安全型为主,不良的父母养育方式可能是BPD形成的危险因素。     

社交恐怖症患者父母教养方式的对照研究

目的 探讨社交恐怖症患者父母教养方式的特异性因素。方法 采用父母教养方式评价量表(EM—BU)对符合ICD—10诊断标准的36例社交恐怖症患者进行了评定，并与31例强迫症及35例健康人作为对照者加以比较。结果 同健康对照组相比，社交恐怖症患者在父母惩罚及过分拒绝因子上的评分较高，而父母情感温暖因子上的评分较低，差别有非常显著性意义(P＜0.01)。同强迫症组相比，社交恐怖症患者在母亲惩罚因子上的评分较高，而母亲情感温暖因子上的评分较低，差别有显著性意义(P＜0．05)。结论 父母惩罚、缺少父母的情感温暖及父母的过分拒绝在社交恐怖症的发生发展中起着非常重要的作用，其中父母的惩罚可能是社交恐怖症患者的一个特异性因素。     

父母教养方式和3岁学龄前儿童品行问题的关系

目的以学龄前3岁儿童为对象,探讨父母教养方式与品行问题的关系。方法对深圳市龙华区新入园儿童进行调查,采用一般情况问卷、父母教养方式(Egna Minnen Betraffande Uppfostran-Parents,EMBU-P)问卷、Conners父母用症状量表中品行问题因子向主要照护人收集儿童一般情况、父母教养方式和儿童品行问题等资料。共发放10972份问卷,回收9289份有效问卷。使用logistic回归分析教养方式与儿童品行问题的关系。结果 349名(3.8%)儿童品行问题因子得分高于临界值。在控制父母年龄、父母教育水平、家庭收入等混杂因素后,儿童品行问题与父母拒绝(OR=1.17,P0.01)、控制/过度保护(OR=1.03,P0.01)和情感温暖(OR=0.98,P0.01)的关联有统计学意义。分层分析结果显示,父母拒绝(OR_父=1.16,P0.01;OR母=1.17,P0.01)、父亲的情感温暖(OR_父=0.96,P0.01)和母亲的控制/过度保护(OR_母=1.04,P0.01)与品行问题存在统计学关联,该关联在不同性别、独生与非独生儿童中基本相同。结论父母教养方式可能是学龄前儿童品行问题的影响因素,在预防和治疗儿童品行问题时应给予关注。     

Memories of parental rearing practices and personality features

ABSTRACT– Relationships between own memories of parental rearing practices and adult personality features were examined. Two hundred healthy volunteers, 86 males and 114 females, completed the Own Memories of Child-Rearing Experiences (EMBU), the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and the Lazare-Klerman-Armor Trait Scale (LKAS). Relations between two sets of variables were examined by means of Pearson product moment correlation coefficient, and Bonferroni inequalities were applied for each family of hypotheses. For the male sample all correlations were not significant. For females there were several significant correlations. The most consistent finding was that the experience of negative parental rearing factors was associated with pathological features in the personality. About one half of the significant correlations were found between female hysterical scores and EMBU father. The findings support the general assumption that females with hysterical traits have complicated relations to their fathers, which may indicate fixation in the Oedipal stage.