注意缺陷/多动障碍诊断标准的研究☆

目的使用DSM-Ⅳ中注意缺陷/多动障碍(AD/HD)诊断标准对一组多动综合征和一组无多动的儿童进行诊断,探讨DSM-Ⅳ的分布特征及在我国的适用性.方法多动组为就诊的多动症儿童,符合临床诊断和ICD-10诊断标准,共92例.对照组无多动的学校儿童96名.由家长填DSM-Ⅳ诊断表.结果在188名儿童中,符合DSM-ⅣAD/HD诊断99例,多动组87例(94.57%),对照组12例(12.5%),后者包括单纯注意障碍、学习障碍、情绪障碍及无问题的儿童.如以临床诊断/ICD-10为金标准,DSM-Ⅳ的诊断灵敏度为94.57%,特异度87.50%,诊断一致性为0.91.结论中国多动症儿童的多动/冲动症状难以达到DSM-Ⅳ的标准;DSM-Ⅳ标准扩大了诊断范围,主要是注意障碍为主型.在使用DSM-Ⅳ诊断时应考虑民族、文化、年龄、性别因素.     

ADHD学生的校园干预策略

注意缺陷多动障碍(attention deficit hyperactivity disor-der,ADHD)俗称多动症,根据DSM-Ⅳ诊断标准,美国有3%-5%的儿童患ADHD,其中男孩是女孩的3倍以上[1]。ADHD有3个主要症状:注意缺陷、多动和冲动;DSM-Ⅳ诊断标准将ADHD分为3种亚型:以注意缺陷为主的ADHD-Ⅰ型、以多动冲动为主的ADHD-H型及混合以上症状的ADHD-C型[1]。ADHD学生不但受主要症状的困扰,而且还有大量共患问题,50%～60%的共患破坏性行为障碍,如对立违抗障碍(oppositional defiant disorder,ODD)、品行不良(conduct disorder,CD)[2]。ODD学生主要表现为违…     

基于DSM-5的单双相抑郁住院患者的临床特征比较

目的采用《美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册(第5版)》(DSM-5)诊断标准,比较单相复发性抑郁障碍及双相障碍抑郁发作患者的临床特征,探讨DSM-5特征标准在中国住院患者中的适用情况。方法根据DSM-5标准自编抑郁发作临床特征调查问卷,对2015年8月-12月在北京安定医院抑郁症治疗中心住院的复发性抑郁障碍112例及双相障碍抑郁发作136例进行访谈,比较差异。结果双相抑郁起病年龄更早、抑郁发作次数更多、家族史阳性及伴精神病性特征的比例更高(P0.05)。复发性抑郁一次抑郁发作持续时间更长,伴焦虑痛苦及伴忧郁特征的比例更高(P0.05)。结论单双相抑郁具有不同的临床特征,DSM-5特征标准在中国人群中的信效度需要进一步验证。     

注意缺陷多动障碍患儿的成人早期精神状况随访研究

目的 了解注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)患儿在成人早期罹患精神障碍的状况.方法 采用前瞻性设计方法,对就诊于北京大学精神卫生研究所精神科门诊的300例ADHD患儿进行随访,同意参加随访者116例(随访率38.7%),基线至随访为2.0～13.5年;患儿基线年龄为7.5～17.0岁,随访时年龄为18.0～23.5岁;采用以美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册第4版为诊断标准制订的定式会谈工具确定诊断,包括Conners成人ADHD诊断会谈量表(Conners Adult ADHD Diagnostic Interview for DSM-Ⅳ,CAADID)、DSM-Ⅳ-TR轴Ⅰ障碍定式临床检查(SCID-Ⅰ)和DSM-Ⅳ轴Ⅱ障碍定式临床检查(SCID-Ⅱ)工具.结果 随访时116例中符合成人ADHD诊断者共59例(50.9%),其中单纯符合成人ADHD诊断标准者18例(15.5%),同时符合成人ADHD及精神障碍/人格障碍者41例(35.3%);不符合成人ADHD诊断,但符合精神障碍/人格障碍者17例(14.7%);不符合任何精神疾病诊断者40例(34.5%),其中功能缓解29例(25.0%),功能未缓解11例(9.5%).116例中,40例(34.5%)至少共患1种DSM-Ⅳ轴Ⅰ障碍,其中21例(18.1%)共患情感障碍,12例(10.3%)共患焦虑障碍,6例(5.2%)共患物质滥用;38例(32.8%)符合DSM-Ⅳ轴Ⅱ人格障碍诊断,其中6例(5.2%)符合A组人格障碍诊断,23例(19.8%)符合B组人格障碍诊断,包括20例(17.2%)反社会型人格障碍,18例(15.5%)符合C组人格障碍诊断,6例(6.0%)符合其他人格障碍诊断.结论 ADHD患儿至成人早期预后较差,2/3左右罹患成人ADHD、精神障碍或人格障碍,其中50.9%符合成人ADHD.     

首次住院的青少年抑郁障碍患者非自杀性自伤行为与冲动性的关系

目的 探讨伴有非自杀性自伤(NSSI)行为的青少年抑郁障碍患者在冲动性方面的特征,分析NSSI行为与冲动性的关系,以便早期识别有NSSI行为风险的患者并及时干预.方法 采取顺序入组的方式,选取在深圳市康宁医院首次住院的青少年抑郁障碍患者共53例,根据《精神障碍诊断与统计手册(第5版)》(DSM-5)诊断标准评估患者有无...     

有非自杀性自伤行为首发儿童青少年抑郁障碍患者的大脑自发神经活动特点

目的 探讨有非自杀性自伤(non-suicidal self-injury,NSSI)行为的首发儿童青少年抑郁障碍患者静息状态下的大脑自发神经活动特点.方法 选择2021年2—6月就诊于河北医科大学第一医院精神卫生中心符合美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册第5版(DSM-5)中抑郁障碍诊断标准的50例首发儿童青少年抑郁障碍患者...     

236例注意缺陷与多动障碍患者20年随访的结果

目的　研究注意缺陷与多动障碍儿童在成年后的结局。方法　使用中国精神障碍分类与诊断标准第三版 (CCMD - 3)对 2 0年前流行病学调查发现的注意缺陷与多动障碍患者进行随访 ,并与正常人群作对照分析。结果　 2 36例注意缺陷与多动障碍患者 ,2 0年后有 2 0 8%症状完全消失 ,79 2 %有残留症状 ,11 4 %仍符合注意缺陷与多动障碍诊断标准。其社会经济状况差 ,罹患人格障碍、酒依赖、海洛因依赖者较多 ,与对照组比较有显著性差异。结论　注意缺陷与多动障碍儿童在成年后有不同结局     

注意缺陷多动障碍患儿的临床分型初探

目的 初步探索注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)患儿的临床分型.方法 使用根据美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册第4版(DSM-Ⅳ)编制的儿童临床诊断性会谈量表(CDIS),对1999年9月至2000年8月门诊194例ADHD患儿进行评定,并以DSM-Ⅳ标准将其分为注意缺陷为主型(ADHD-I)、多动-冲动为主型(ADHD-HI)及混合型(ADHD-C)三个表型.结果 (1)亚型分布ADHD-I占45.9%(89例),ADHD-HI占7.7%(15例),ADHD-C占46.4%(90例);ADHD-C∶ADHD-I为1∶1.(2)CDIS量表总分194例的注意缺陷症状为(7.2±1.4)分,多动-冲动症状为(5.4±2.2)分;经方差分析,三个表型间注意缺陷和多动-冲动症状因子总分比较,差异均有非常显著性(P＜0.01).(3)核心症状频率194例中出现注意缺陷症状的频率为(79.5±2.9)%,多动-冲动症状的频率为(59.8±3.5)%.随年龄的增大,ADHD-HI和ADHD-C减少,ADHD-I增多.结论 在该样本中存在DSM-Ⅳ定义的三个表型,其中ADHD-HI的比例较低,ADHD-I与ADHD-C的比例相近;年龄对表型分布有影响.     

成都市儿童青少年抑郁障碍临床特征调查

目的 探讨成都市儿童青少年抑郁障碍的临床特征.方法 采用量表筛查和访谈结合的方法对成都市五城区6 ～ 16岁的4585名在校学生进行抑郁障碍调查.首先应用长处和困难问卷(strength and difficulty questionnaire,SDQ)进行筛查,筛查阳性的进一步用精神发育和健康状况评定量表(the development and well-being assessment,DAWBA)进行定式检查以明确诊断.诊断标准按照美国精神障碍诊断和统计手册第4版.结果 SDQ筛查阳性的占50.2%(2302/4585).共检出儿童青少年抑郁障碍患者55例,重性抑郁障碍29例,恶劣心境0例,未标明的抑郁障碍26例,总的抑郁障碍患病率1.2%(55/4585).起病年龄的中位数为13岁(P25:11岁,P75:15岁),高峰年龄在15岁,占21.8%(12/55).出现频率居前3位的抑郁症状依次是情绪低落(74.5%)、易激惹(72.7%)、精力减退(72.7%).34.5%(19/55)的儿童青少年抑郁障碍患者曾经试图伤害自己或自杀.55例患者中39例过去曾有抑郁发作,占70.9%.抑郁障碍对儿童青少年的学习、社交和娱乐具有不同程度的影响,74.5%(41/55)的患者学习受影响.患者的病情有轻有重,大多数(78.2%)为轻度或中度.结论 儿童青少年抑郁障碍应受到重视,做到早发现早治疗.     

成人的注意缺陷与多动障碍

注意缺陷与多动障碍(attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, ADHD)是儿童和青少期最常见的精神障碍,其主要特征是注意分散、活动过度和行为冲动.过去认为ADHD特发于儿童和青少年期,仅有少数患儿症状持续到成人.但近年来研究却发现,约30%～50%患儿在进入成人后仍持续上述症状[1],并有多项研究证实成人ADHD可视为独立的一种精神障碍[2],美国在1994年出版的<精神障碍诊断和统计手册>第4版(DSM-Ⅳ)中就专为成人ADHD列出了独立的诊断标准.该病常共病多种精神障碍如焦虑、抑郁、双相情感障碍、反社会型人格障碍、物质滥用和依赖等,造成患者生活、工作、社会功能受损及很大的医疗和社会经济负担[3,4],越来越受到人们关注.许多学者就其病因、流行病学、临床表现、诊断及治疗等方面进行了大量研究,本文就有关研究进展作一综述.     

Further evidence for family-genetic risk factors in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Patterns of comorbidity in probands and relatives psychiatrically and pediatrically referred samples.

We examined 140 probands with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, 120 normal controls, and their 822 first-degree relatives using "blind" raters and structured diagnostic interviews. Compared with controls, probands with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder were more likely to have conduct, mood, and anxiety disorders. Compared with relatives of controls, relatives of probands with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder had a higher risk for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, antisocial disorders, major depressive disorder, substance dependence, and anxiety disorders. Patterns of comorbidity indicate that attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and major depressive disorders may share common familial vulnerabilities, that attention deficit hyperactivity disorder plus conduct disorder may be a distinct subtype, and that attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and anxiety disorders are transmitted independently in families. These results extend previous findings indicating family-genetic influences in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder by using both pediatrically and psychiatrically referred proband samples. The distributions of comorbid illnesses in families provide further validation for subgrouping probands with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder by comorbidity.     

Anxiety disorders among adolescents and young adults: Prevalence and mental health care service utilization in a regional epidemiological study in Germany

BackgroundAnxiety disorders are among the most prevalent mental disorders. While it is known that a majority of individuals with anxiety disorders remains untreated, actual treatment rates for adolescents and young adults in Germany remain largely unknown.MethodsAs part of the Behavior and Mind Health (BeMIND) study, examining a random community sample of 14–21-year-olds (Dresden; Germany; N = 1,180), the lifetime prevalence for DSM-5 anxiety disorders and lifetime service utilization rates were determined by a standardized interview (DIA-X-5/CIDI).ResultsIn the present sample, 23.3 % of adolescents and young adults fulfilled DSM-5 criteria for at least one lifetime anxiety disorder. Of those, 39.1 % used any health care services, most frequently they visited an outpatient psychotherapist/psychologist (23.0 %). Individuals with agoraphobia were most likely to use any in- or outpatient specialized service (64.8 %), while individuals with a specific phobia were least likely (22.3 %). Having a comorbid disorder or being female increased the likelihood of seeking help.ConclusionThe results showed that approximately 2/3 of adolescents and young adults suffering from an anxiety disorder did not seek help and only few report contacts with a psychotherapist. Given the adverse long-term consequences of anxiety disorders, these findings suggest to improve efforts on increasing intervention awareness and treatment possibilities for these individuals.     

Utility of the CBCL DSM-oriented scales in assessing emotional disorders in youth with autism

BackgroundYouth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are at risk for one or more emotional disorders (ED) including depressive and anxiety conditions. DSM-5 diagnostic guidelines indicate that co-occurring ED must be specified when present. While ED may be evaluated for during initial diagnostic assessment, routine monitoring and screening is needed to identify emerging ED in later childhood and adolescence, a period of high risk.MethodConfirmatory factor analysis, convergent and divergent validity analyses, criterion-related validity, and diagnostic accuracy analyses of the CBCL's Affective Problems and Anxiety Problems DSM-oriented scales was completed on 93 well-characterized youth, ages 6 to 18 years with ASD (6:1 M:F), with and without intellectual impairment. These youth were from predominately white, middle-class backgrounds.ResultsEach scale measured a single construct reliably (depressive and anxiety disorders), neither scale measured symptoms of ASD, and youth with a depressive disorder had other ED co-morbidities.ConclusionsFindings demonstrate the DSM-Oriented Affective and Anxiety Problem Scales can be used to screen for depression and anxiety in youth with ASD. Replication is needed with various subgroups representing gender, age, developmental level, autism, and mental health severity differences and with groups across a broader set of demographics.     

Prevalence of DSM-IV disorders in Chinese adolescents and the effects of an impairment criterion

Purpose

To provide preliminary prevalence estimates of common DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders—4th Edition) disorders in a sample of Hong Kong Chinese adolescents.

Methods

541 Chinese adolescents were recruited from Grades 7, 8 and 9 of 28 mainstream high schools in Hong Kong (mean age=13.8 years; SD=1.2). The adolescents and their parents were separately administered the Youth and Parent versions of DISC-IV (Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children-Version 4), respectively.

Results

Based upon both symptom and impairment criteria, as required by DSM-IV, the overall prevalence estimate of DSM-IV disorders in our sample of Chinese adolescents was 16.4%. Estimates for such individual disorders/diagnostic groupings as anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD), and substance use disorders were 6.9, 1.3, 3.9, 6.8, 1.7, and 1.1%, respectively. These rates were largely compatible with those reported in previous studies with perhaps lower rates of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), depressive disorders, CD, and substance use disorders, but a higher rate of ODD. The rate of ADHD was somewhat higher, but this might reflect the current DSM-IV diagnostic practice. The rate of anxiety disorders was not as high as predicted from some previous questionnaire surveys. The application of an impairment criterion had discernible impacts on prevalence estimates, greater on anxiety and substance use disorders, but smaller on depressive and disruptive behavior disorders. There was a lack of gender difference in rates of ODD and CD.

Discussion and conclusion

While the findings reported here are broadly compatible with those of other studies, there may be cross-cultural differences in rates of some individual disorders, e.g., GAD, depressive disorders, ODD, CD, and substance use disorders, as well as in gender difference regarding rates of ODD and CD. However, exact comparison between studies is confounded by methodological differences in sample characteristics, measures, and case definition. Standardization of methodology in epidemiological surveys should allow more precise identification of any within- or between-culture variations in prevalence estimation.     

Les troubles paraphiliques dans le DSM-5 : analyse critique et considérations médicolégales

IntroductionThe 5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) aimed to improve the reliability of psychiatric diagnoses, to address problems identified in DSM-IV, and to improve its clinical and forensic utility. Some of the changes in the diagnostic criteria for the paraphilic disorders in the DSM-5 were guided by forensic concerns, since these are the ones of most interest to forensic psychiatrists. The aim of this paper is to describe and comment the changes made from DSM-IV to DSM-5 concerning paraphilic disorders, and to discuss their legal implications.MethodsPubMed and Medline search, Scopus, journal and textbook articles have been accessed for a detailed literature review on DSM-5 changes related to paraphilic disorders. We conducted the search using the following keywords: Paraphilia; DSM-5; Diagnosis; Diagnostic criteria.ResultsSeveral minor but important changes have been made to the paraphilic disorders diagnostic criteria in DSM-5. DSM-5 redefines the term “paraphilia” which now refers to non pathological, atypical sexual interests (Criterion A); and introduced the term “paraphilic disorder” which is reserved for individuals who meet both Criterion A and Criterion B (individuals who have clinically significant distress or impairment). The DSM-IV category of “paraphilia not otherwise specified” has been replaced with two disorders in DSM-5, “other specified paraphilic disorder” and “unspecified paraphilic disorder”. Both of these categories are considered to be residual. The decision to use one or other of the two disorders depends on whether the clinician wants to specify explicitly the type of atypical paraphilic focus. These residual categories don’t have the same degree of utility as the specific named categories, and can be misused in forensic contexts. In addition, for all of the paraphilic disorders except pedophilic disorder, there are two new course specifiers, “in full remission” and “in a controlled environment”. The decision to provide a specific duration threshold at which the individual must not have acted on his paraphilic urges nor have experienced any distress or impairment, was mainly motivated by forensic issues. Otherwise, three conditions were considered for inclusion in DSM-5: “hypersexual disorder”, “paraphilic coercive disorder”, and “pedophebophilic disorder”. Hypersexual disorder was defined as intense interest in normal sex that was causing problems. Paraphilic coercive disorder was defined as sexual arousal by coercive sex in men who do not meet the diagnostic criteria for sexual sadism. In pedophebophilic disorder, the range of pathologic sexual interest was extended to include adolescents. These proposed diagnosis have received considerable Criticism, and have been abandoned, largely due to a lack of empirical evidence.ConclusionChanges proposed in the DSM treatment of paraphilic disorders are relatively modest and the core of the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria is retained. Many of the changes that occur in paraphilic disorders diagnostic criteria increase the risk of false-positive diagnoses by making it easier to assign a specific paraphilia to an individual, and must be considered with caution. The classification of certain sexual behaviors as pathological, even in the absence of distress, reveals an underlying moral design. As a result, some authors question the validity and reliability of paraphilic disorders, and suggest revolutionary changes, depathologizing paraphilias and removing them from systems of mental disorder classification.     

Subthreshold Depressive Disorder in Adolescents: Predictors of Escalation to Full-Syndrome Depressive Disorders

ObjectivesSubthreshold depressive disorder is one of the best established risk factors for the onset of full-syndrome depressive disorders. However, many youths with subthreshold depressive disorder do not develop full-syndrome depression. We examined predictors of escalation to full-syndrome depressive disorders in a community sample of 225 adolescents with subthreshold depressive disorder.MethodCriteria for subthreshold depressive disorder were an episode of depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure lasting at least 1 week and at least two of the seven other DSM-IV–associated symptoms for major depression. Participants were assessed four times from mid-adolescence to age 30 years using semistructured diagnostic interviews.ResultsThe estimated risk for escalation to full-syndrome depressive disorders was 67%. Five variables accounted for unique variance in predicting escalation: severity of depressive symptoms, medical conditions/symptoms, history of suicidal ideation, history of anxiety disorder, and familial loading for depression. Adolescents with three or more risk factors had an estimated 90% chance of escalating to full-syndrome depressive disorder, compared with 47% of adolescents with fewer than three risk factors.ConclusionsThese data may be useful in identifying a subgroup of youths with subthreshold depressive disorder who are at especially high risk for escalating to full-syndrome depressive disorders.     

Borderline personality disorder: Prevalence and psychiatric comorbidity among male offenders on probation in Sweden

IntroductionBorderline personality disorder (BPD) is a severely disabling condition, associated with substantially increased risk of deliberate self-harm and, particularly in men, also with interpersonal violence and other criminal behavior. Although BPD might be common among prison inmates, little is known about prevalence and psychiatric comorbidity in probationers and parolees.MethodIn 2013, a consecutive sample of 109 newly admitted adult male offenders on probation or parole in all three probation offices of Stockholm, Sweden, completed self-report screening questionnaires for BPD and other psychiatric morbidity. Participants scoring over BPD cut-off participated in a psychiatric diagnostic interview.ResultsWe ascertained a final DSM-5 BPD prevalence rate of 19.8% (95% CI: 12.3–27.3%). The most common current comorbid disorders among subjects with BPD were antisocial personality disorder (91%), major depressive disorder (82%), substance dependence (73%), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (70%), and alcohol dependence (64%). Individuals diagnosed with BPD had significantly more current psychiatric comorbidity (M = 6.2 disorders) than interviewed participants not fulfilling BPD criteria (M = 3.6). Participants with BPD also reported substantially more symptoms of ADHD, anxiety and depression compared to all subjects without BPD.ConclusionsBPD affected one fifth of probationers and was related to serious mental ill-health known to affect recidivism risk. The findings suggest further study of possible benefits of improved identification and treatment of BPD in offender populations.     

Exploring the nature of anxiety in young adults on the autism spectrum: A qualitative study

BackgroundResearch exploring the nature of anxiety symptoms in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has thus far focused on children and adolescents, providing evidence for both typical and atypical anxiety symptom presentations associated with ASD. This study builds on previous research by focusing on young adults, and comparing anxiety presentation between individuals with ASD and non-ASD individuals with anxiety disorders. We anticipated that while the non-ASD group would report only typical anxiety symptoms, and the ASD group would report both typical and atypical presentations of anxiety symptoms.MethodTen individuals with ASD and anxiety (M = 21.8 years, SD = 6.76), and 10 individuals with anxiety (M = 24.4 years, SD = 4.17) participated in focus groups. Participants responded to semi-structured interview questions specifically developed using the DSM-5 criteria for each of the anxiety disorders, Illness Anxiety Disorder, and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. These questions focused on carefully elucidating experiences of anxiety including DSM-5 anxiety symptomatology and ASD-specific anxiety symptomatology.ResultsThematic analysis revealed a theme structure for the ASD group composed of both DSM-5-related (e.g., social anxiety themes) and ASD-specific anxiety presentations (i.e., related to core ASD symptomatology). In contrast, the non-ASD group described predominantly DSM-5-related anxiety symptomatology.ConclusionsOur findings support the predicted outcome that there are both ASD-specific anxiety and DSM-5-related anxiety symptomatology in young adults with ASD, compared with young adults with anxiety who show only DSM-5 symptomatology. Future research elucidating the relationship between ASD symptomatology and anxiety in ASD, utilising both quantitative and qualitative measures, is crucial to enable a more comprehensive understanding of the nuances of anxiety in ASD. Gaining this knowledge is a crucial step for the development of more accurate and appropriate assessment and treatment tools that can target their specific anxiety experiences.     

Changes in the clinical features of child and adolescent psychiatric inpatients: a nationwide time-trend study from Finland

Background: Few studies have focused on the recent trends in clinical features child and adolescent inpatient. Aims: This study focuses on the change in the characteristics of child and adolescent psychiatric inpatients in Finland. Methods: The data collection was carried out on selected study days in 2000 and 2011. Questionnaires were sent to the psychiatrists of all child and adolescent wards in Finland. Results: By comparing the data obtained in 2000 (n = 504) and 2011 (n = 412), several changes were found: the percentage of girls in adolescent wards grew and the diagnoses of depression, anxiety disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and eating disorders increased. In contrast, the diagnoses of psychosis and conduct or oppositional disorders decreased. General functioning was evaluated with the Childreńs Global Assessment Scale (CGAS). There were no changes in the distribution of CGAS scores among child inpatients, whereas among adolescents the share of inpatients with lowest CGAS scores (1–30) increased significantly. The mean length of stay dropped. Conclusions: The growing percentage of girls in adolescent wards is associated with an increase in diagnoses that are more prevalent among girls than boys, namely depression, anxiety, and eating disorders. The changes in the distribution of diagnoses may be due to changes in diagnostic or referral practices, or reflect true changes in the prevalence of disorders among children and adolescents in need of inpatient treatment. The share of adolescent inpatients with the poorest general functioning has increased. The observed shortening in inpatient treatment time seems to be a result of changes in treatment practices.     

Chernobyl exposure as stressor during pregnancy and behaviour in adolescent offspring

Objective: Research in animals has shown that exposure to stressors during pregnancy is associated with offspring behavioural disorders. We aimed to study the effect of in utero exposure to the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, and maternal anxiety presumably associated with that exposure, on behaviour disorder observed at age 14. Method: Exposed (n = 232) and non‐exposed Finnish twins (n = 572) were compared. A semi‐structured interview was used to assess lifetime symptoms of depression, generalized anxiety disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms. Results: Adolescents who were exposed from the second trimester in pregnancy onwards, had a 2.32‐fold risk (95% CI: 1.13–4.72) of having lifetime depression symptoms, an increased risk of fulfilling DSM‐III‐R criteria of a major depressive disorder (OR = 2.48, 95% CI: 1.06–5.7), and a 2.01‐fold risk (95% CI: 1.14–3.52) of having attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms. Conclusion: Perturbations in fetal brain development during the second trimester may be associated with the increased prevalence of depressive and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms.