脑挫裂伤灶周围水肿区大小的变化及其影响因素分析

目的 分析引起不同区域脑挫裂伤灶周围脑组织水肿区体积差异性的因素,为治疗脑水肿提供相关理论基础.方法 回顾性分析113例脑挫裂伤患者的资料,根据CT资料,分为皮层大静脉区域脑挫裂伤组(静脉组)47例、其他部位脑挫裂伤组(非静脉组)66例,应用3D-Slicer软件分别计算伤后第1次CT脑挫裂伤的体积、第5 d脑挫裂伤及...     

脑出血患者脑水肿与精氨酸加压素相关性研究

目的探讨高血压脑出血患者血浆精氨酸加压素(AVP)水平与继发性脑水肿的相关性。方法以高血压脑出血患者为研究对象,定时定量采血,采用放射免疫法测量血中AVP浓度,定时复查头颅CT,测量水肿范围,并观察意识状态。结果脑出血后脑水肿1~2 h即可出现,并呈进行性加重,1~3 d达高峰,持续约2 w,早期血浆AVP含量与脑水肿的严重程度及脑水肿持续时间均呈正相关。结论血浆AVP含量与脑出血继发性脑水肿的发生发展存在着密切联系。     

脑挫裂伤患者脑脊液ApoE多态性与周围脑组织水肿的关系

目的探讨脑挫裂伤患者脑脊液载脂蛋白E基因(ApoE)多态性与周围脑组织水肿的关系。方法用聚合酶链反应-限制性片段多态性(PCR-RFLP)技术检测36例脑挫裂伤患者ApoE基因型频率,根据CT片计算脑水肿指数,统计学分析它们之间的关系。结果脑水肿指数与ApoE3呈负相关,而与ApoE4呈正相关,两者都具有统计学意义,脑挫裂伤患者脑脊液ApoE3和ApoE4与周围脑组织水肿具有相关性。结论脑挫裂伤患者脑脊液ApoE多态性可能是影响周围脑组织水肿的因素之一。     

纳洛酮对急性重症非心源性脑梗死患者血浆BNP水平的影响

目的观察纳洛酮对急性重症非心源性脑梗死患者血浆BNP的影响,探讨其脑保护作用机制。方法将116例重症非心源性脑梗死患者(NIHSS≥8,GCS≤8分)随机分为治疗组(n=58)和对照组(n=58),对照组入院后给予常规治疗,治疗组在常规治疗的基础上给予盐酸纳洛酮静脉注射,分别于入院1、3、7d检测血浆BNP水平,同时进行NIHSS、GCS评分,根据脑水肿CT值判断脑水肿程度。结果 2组3d、7d时血浆BNP水平均明显增高,脑水肿较重,神经功能缺损严重,与对照组相比,治疗组血浆BNP水平下降,脑水肿、神经功能缺损程度均减轻(P0.05)。结论纳洛酮可显著改善急性重症非心源性脑梗死神经功能缺损程度,减轻脑水肿,其神经保护作用可能与下调血浆BNP水平有关。     

脑挫裂伤失活组织清除程度对预后的影响

目前我国颅脑外伤的发病率已超过100/10万人口,其中中重型颅脑外伤占40％～45％[1]。脑挫裂伤为最常见的原发性颅脑损伤,当颅内有继发血肿或有难以遏制的颅内高压时,病情多较重,发展迅速,预后差,死亡率可高达50％～80％[2],此时需立即手术治疗。手术原则除需要清除颅内血肿,还要彻底清除脑失活组织,否则,术后脑水肿严重,病程也将延长[3]。近年来也有越来越多的专家学者建议尽量保留脑挫伤组织,有利于术后脑功能最大程度的恢复,但尚缺乏对其临床疗效的系统研究。本院从2010年起开始施行有手术指证的脑挫裂伤患者采用尽量减少清除脑挫伤组织手术和采用传统的彻底清除脑挫伤组织手术的分组对照研究,本文就我院有手术指证的脑挫裂伤患者两组（各56例）临床资料,对两组术后的平均住院日、术后第5d脑水肿程度（CT）和术后3个月的斯堪的纳维亚神经卒中量表评分（Scandinavia stroke scale,SSS）[4]进行统计分析和探讨。     

HMGB1在人脑挫裂伤早期脑水肿中的作用

目的探讨高迁移率组蛋白(high-mobility group box 1,HMGB1)在人脑挫裂伤早期脑水肿的作用。方法收集20例脑挫裂伤病人作为实验组,根据伤后时间不同,分为伤后6 h组(n=7)、12 h组(n=5)、1 d组(n=4)、3 d组(n=4),同时收集正常脑组织作为对照组(n=5)。采用免疫荧光染色方法检测对照组及实验组各时间点HMGB1和水通道蛋白4(aquaporin 4,AQP4)的表达情况。结果与对照组比较,伤后6 h组HMGB1从胞核内转移至胞质的比例明显增加(P0.05),并于伤后1 d达到高峰(P0.05)。与对照组比较,伤后6 h组AQP4的表达明显增加(P0.05),持续升高至伤后3 d达到高峰(P0.05);AQP4主要表达于星形胶质细胞。结论HMGB1参与人脑挫裂伤后脑水肿的病理生理过程。     

额叶脑挫裂伤恶化的危险因素分析

目的 探讨不同类型外伤性额叶脑挫裂伤恶化的危险因素,首次CT表现能否预示恶化发生的风险.方法 回顾性分析36例没有弥散性脑损伤或颅内血肿而CT表现额叶脑挫裂伤的头部外伤病例.分析额叶脑挫裂伤类型（根据CT扫描结果）,格拉斯哥昏迷评分（GCS）,病情恶化的时间和预后（GOS）.结果 20例单侧额叶脑挫裂伤的病例都恢复良好;10例局限性双侧额叶脑挫裂伤仅5例恢复良好;6例广泛性双侧额叶脑挫裂伤中的4例伤后24h病情仍恶化,其中1例死亡.结论 脑水肿尤其延迟效应是额叶脑挫裂伤恶化的主要危险因素.首次CT扫描所示脑挫裂伤的类型可以用来预示恶化发生的风险,双侧广泛性额叶脑挫裂伤恶化的危险性很高.     

高血压性脑出血后迟发性脑水肿10例临床分析

脑水肿形成是高血压性脑出血的一个重要并发症,常在出血后第2～7天达高峰,第10～14天基本消失,但部分中、小量脑出血患者在发病14d后复查头部CT仍有明显脑水肿,使得临床症状恶化,称为迟发性脑水肿。本院2000年以来共收治高血压性脑出血迟发性脑水肿10例,现报道如下。     

脑出血后脑水肿程度评估及其影响因素分析

目的 应用改良方法对脑出血后脑水肿程度进行量化评估,分析影响脑水肿程度的相关因素.方法 140例出血量在10ml以上的脑出血住院患者于发病当天、发病后3d、7d和14d进行头部CT扫描,计算脑出血血肿体积及周围水肿体积,分析影响脑出血后脑水肿程度的相关因素.结果 140例入选的脑出血患者,发病当天脑出血平均体积23.87±8.2ml.随着发病时间延长,脑血肿体积逐渐缩小,脑出血后脑水肿在发病当天即可出现,发病后3d的脑水肿体积显著增高(P<0.01),增高趋势延续至发病后14d(P<0.01).应用改良方法测得的血肿体积与传统方法测量结果大致相仿,但测得的水肿体积高于传统方法测量结果(P<0.05).脑出血量大,伴发高血压、糖尿病、缺血性脑血管病、肺部感染、肾功能不全、低钠血症、占位效应的患者脑出血后脑水肿体积明显增大(P<0.01,P<0.05).结论 脑出血后脑水肿程度随着脑出血时间动态变化,改良方法对于脑水肿体积的评估更加客观与准确,脑出血量大,伴发糖尿病、缺血性脑血管病、肺部感染、肾功能不全、低钠血症、占位效应是加重脑出血后脑水肿程度的危险因素.     

动态CT量化在额叶脑挫裂伤诊治中的应用研究

目的探讨动态CT量化在额叶脑挫裂伤治疗中的应用价值。方法将34例额叶脑挫裂伤患者按脑挫裂伤并水肿范围、侧脑室形态、第三脑室变化、环池变化及中线移位程度进行量化评分指导手术治疗,并与既往以格拉斯哥评分(GCS)及临床表现指导手术的34例额叶脑挫裂伤患者进行疗效对比。结果两组术前格拉斯哥评分比较差异有统计学意义,CT量化组格拉斯哥预后评分(GOS)明显高于对照组,差异有显著性,CT量化评分与GOS存在显著负相关。结论动态CT量化评分可作为分析病情变化及严重程度的指标,帮助临床医师及时、准确的把握手术适应症及手术时机,改善预后,提高患者生活质量。     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Treatment Considerations in Anticonvulsant Monotherapy

Summary: The long-standing practice of polypharmacy in treating epilepsy is giving way to use of monotherapy. Monotherapy can improve seizure control as well as reduce the risk of serious idiosyncratic reactions, dose-related side effects, and complex drug interactions. Monotherapy also offers improved compliance and cost-effectiveness. The basis of monotherapy is accurate diagnosis and assessment of the patient's seizure type(s), followed by selection of a single appropriate anticonvulsant drug. Many patients currently treated with multiple anticonvulsants can be successfully converted to monotherapy with a carefully monitored program in which troublesome and redundant drugs are gradually withdrawn from the therapeutic regimen.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.     

Anticonvulsant Drugs and Cognitive Function: A Review of the Literature

Summary: Alterations of cognitive function are separate from disturbances of behavior seen in association with epilepsy. The nature of the cognitive disability may to a certain extent depend on the seizure type. Partial seizures, mainly derived from a temporal lobe focus, impair memory tasks, while generalized seizures seem to have more effect on attentional abilities. A number of studies, reviewed in this paper, suggest that anticonvulsant drugs further impair cognitive function. Maximal impairments are seen in patients receiving polytherapy: rationalization of polytherapy improves cognitive abilities. Studies in children and adults have allowed differentiation of the effects of various commonly used antiepileptic agents. Maximal cognitive deficits are seen with. phenytoin, while phenobarbital and sodium valproate induce moderate disturbances, and carbamazepine seems relatively free from such toxicity. Further research is needed on the interrelationship between types of seizure disorders, types of anticonvulsant medications, and cognitive function.     

Dextromethorphan: Cellular Effects Reducing Neuronal Hyperactivity

Summary: Dextromethorphan is a dextrorotary morphinan without affinity for opioid receptors, commonly used as an antitussive medication. During the past 5 years, interest in the compound and its demethylated derivative, dextrorphan, has been revived because additional neuroprotective and an-tiepileptic properties were found in in vitro studies, animal experiments, and a few clinical cases. Both morphinans are able to inhibit N -methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor channels and voltage-operated calcium and sodium channels with different potencies. The inhibition of the NMDA receptor is believed to be the predominant mechanism of action responsible for the anticonvulsant and neuroprotective properties of the compounds.