青少年抑郁障碍患者与双相情感障碍患者睡眠特征及其对自杀风险的影响

目的 比较青少年抑郁障碍患者和双相情感障碍患者睡眠结构特征的差异,探讨睡眠指标等因素对患者自杀风险的影响。方法 回顾性查阅广州医科大学附属脑科医院2019年1月1日-2021年6月30日符合《国际疾病分类（第10版）》（ICD-10）诊断标准的抑郁障碍（n=97）和双相情感障碍（n=52）住院青少年患者病历资料,收集患者的年龄、性别、体质量指数（BMI）、精神科诊断、自杀风险评估量表（NGASR）评分及多导睡眠监测（PSG）结果。根据NGASR评分结果,将患者分为两组：0~5分为自杀低风险组（n=32）,>5分为自杀高风险组（n=117）。以既往文献中80例正常青少年的PSG数据作为对照组资料。建立多元线性回归模型探讨青少年情感障碍患者自杀风险的影响因素。结果 自杀高风险组睡眠效率和N2期睡眠占比均低于自杀低风险组（Z=-2.138、-2.520,P均<0.05）。抑郁组总睡眠时间、N2期睡眠时间以及REM期睡眠时间均少于双相组（t=-2.822、-3.087、-2.277,P<0.05或0.01）;抑郁组和双相组REM期睡眠占比均低于对照组（t=-2.369、-2.069,P均<0.05）。线性回归分析显示,青少年情感障碍患者自杀风险的影响因素包括N1期睡眠时间（β=0.019,P<0.05）、性别（男性vs.女性,β=-4.051,P<0.01）以及诊断（双相情感障碍vs.抑郁障碍,β=-1.429,P<0.05）。结论 与青少年双相情感障碍患者相比,青少年抑郁障碍患者存在睡眠连续性差、浅睡眠更少的特点。N1期睡眠时间、女性以及诊断为抑郁障碍是青少年情感障碍患者自杀的影响因素。     

伴失眠的抑郁症患者睡眠认知特征及其对睡眠质量的影响

目的 了解伴失眠的抑郁症患者对睡眠的信念与态度，并探讨其对睡眠质量的影响。方法 纳入在首都医科大学附属北京安定医院就诊、符合《精神障碍诊断与统计手册（第4版）》（DSM-IV）诊断标准的伴失眠的抑郁症患者（n=61）和原发性失眠患者（n=62）为研究对象，并招募健康对照组（n=64）。三组被试均接受睡眠功能失调信念和态度量表（DBAS）及匹兹堡睡眠质量指数量表（PSQI）评定，伴失眠的抑郁症患者同时接受汉密尔顿抑郁量表17项版（HAMD-17）评定。采用协方差分析比较三组被试PSQI和DBAS评分。采用多元线性回归分析探讨伴失眠的抑郁症患者PSQI评分的影响因素。结果 伴失眠的抑郁症组和原发性失眠组PSQI评分均高于对照组（t=18.932、18.610，P均<0.01），两组DBAS评分均低于对照组（t=-5.561、-5.791，P均<0.01）。以伴失眠的抑郁症患者PSQI评分作为因变量，建立的多元线性回归方程具有统计学意义（F=14.095，R²=0.327，P<0.05），DBAS中对睡眠的预测与控制因子和年龄是患者睡眠质量的影响因素（B=-0.100、-0.279，P<0.05或0.01）。结论 伴失眠的抑郁症患者比正常人存在更多的睡眠相关负性认知，且不良认知可能是其睡眠质量的影响因素。     

老年人睡眠时长与抑郁症状的关系

背景 抑郁症严重危害老年人的身心健康,睡眠与抑郁症状的关系已成为研究热点之一,但目前关于睡眠与抑郁症状之间的研究结论存在差异。目的 探讨老年人睡眠时长与抑郁症状之间的关系,为预防老年人出现抑郁症状和延缓已有抑郁症状的老年人病情发展提供参考。方法 采用2018年《中国健康与养老追踪调查》数据库（CHARLS）中8 210名年龄≥60岁老年人的调查结果。按照中文简版流调中心用抑郁量表（CESD-10）评分标准,将老年人分为存在抑郁症状和不存在抑郁症状两组。使用Logistic回归及限制性立方样条模型分析老年人睡眠时长与抑郁症状之间的关联。结果 在8 210名老年人中,检出存在抑郁症状者3 118人（37.98%）,平均每晚睡眠时长为（6.14±2.05）h。睡眠时长与抑郁症状之间存在非线性关联（χ²=412.670,P<0.01,df=4）。在调整了混杂因素后,睡眠时长<6 h、6~6.9 h和≥8 h的老年人出现抑郁症状的风险分别是睡眠时长7~7.9 h老年人的2.971倍（95% CI：2.560~3.449,P<0.01）、1.372倍（95% CI：1.161~1.621,P<0.01）和1.185倍（95% CI：1.009~1.393,P<0.05）。在不同性别及60~69岁组老年人中,未发现睡眠时长≥8 h与抑郁症状检出风险有关（P>0.05）。结论 睡眠时长与抑郁症状存在近似非线性关联,但存在性别和年龄差异。     

医学生偏头痛患者睡眠时间不足的发生率及影响因素分析

目的 调查医学生偏头痛患者睡眠时间不足的发生率及影响因素，为改善睡眠质量提供参考。方法 采用整群抽样方法，于2018年7月-2019年7月选取川北医学院在校医学生中符合《国际头痛疾病分类（第3版）》（ICHD-3）偏头痛诊断标准的546名患者为研究对象，并根据每夜睡眠时间是否>6 h分为睡眠时间充足组（n=367）与睡眠时间不足组（n=179）。收集医学生一般人口学资料及临床资料，采用匹兹堡睡眠质量指数量表（PSQI）评定睡眠情况，采用汉密尔顿焦虑量表（HAMA）和汉密尔顿抑郁量表24项版（HAMD-24）评定焦虑抑郁情况，采用视觉模拟评分法（VAS）和头痛影响测试量表（HIT-6）评定头痛严重程度及其对日常生活的影响。采用Logistic回归分析探索偏头痛患者睡眠时间不足的影响因素。结果 在546名医学生偏头痛患者中，有179人（32.78%）存在睡眠时间不足。睡眠时间不足组和睡眠时间充足组的年龄（t=2.107）、头痛频率（Z=-2.972）、焦虑状态（χ2=14.053）、抑郁状态（χ2=10.773）、PSQI评分（t=-13.247）及睡眠质量（χ2=94.754）差异均有统计学意义（P?0.05或0.01）。相关分析显示，偏头痛患者睡眠时间与年龄呈负相关（r=-0.100，P<0.01），与头痛频率、焦虑状态、抑郁状态呈正相关（r=0.135、0.169、0.139，P均<0.01）。多因素Logistic回归分析显示，年龄（OR=0.860，95% CI：0.743~0.996，P=0.045）、头痛频率（OR=1.051，95% CI：1.006~1.098，P=0.026）、抑郁状态（OR=1.712，95% CI：1.024~2.861，P=0.040）是医学生偏头痛患者睡眠时间不足的影响因素。结论 医学生偏头痛患者睡眠时间不足的发生率较高，头痛频率高和抑郁状态是其危险因素，年龄是保护因素。     

正念疗法对老年患者非全身麻醉术后认知功能及睡眠质量的影响

背景 术后认知功能障碍（POCD）是术后常见的并发症之一,老年患者发病率较高。POCD对患者术后康复影响较大。目的 探讨正念疗法对老年患者非全身麻醉术后认知功能及睡眠质量的影响,为降低老年患者POCD发生风险、改善睡眠质量提供参考。方法 采用简单随机抽样法,选取2022年3月—2023年3月在绵阳市第三人民医院接受非全身麻醉手术的78例老年患者为研究对象,采用随机数字表法分为研究组和对照组各39例。两组均接受常规治疗及护理,研究组此基础上接受正念疗法干预。于术前1天以及术后第1、3、5天,采用简易精神状态量表（MMSE）评定患者的认知功能,于术前1天及术后第3天采用匹兹堡睡眠质量指数量表（PSQI）评定患者的睡眠质量。结果 两组MMSE评分的时间效应、组间效应以及时间与组间的交互效应均有统计学意义（F=78.251、197.071、371.915,P均<0.05）。进一步分析显示,术后第1、3、5天,研究组MMSE评分均高于对照组,差异均有统计学意义（t=-3.579、-1.764、-0.253,P均<0.05）。术后第1、3、5天,研究组POCD发生率均低于对照组,差异均有统计学意义（χ²=2.631、3.471、5.135,P均<0.05）。术后第3天,研究组PSQI总评分低于对照组（P<0.05）,且研究组PSQI总评分、睡眠潜伏期、主观睡眠质量、日间功能障碍以及催眠药物使用因子评分均低于术前（F=43.175、12.594、11.092、4.579、3.514,P均<0.01）。结论 正念疗法可能有助于降低老年患者非全身麻醉术POCD的发生率,并改善其睡眠质量。     

基于结构方程模型探讨青少年睡眠质量与负性生活事件、应对方式的关系

目的 采用结构方程模型探讨青少年睡眠质量与负性生活事件、应对方式之间的关系,为改善青少年睡眠质量提供参考。方法 于2021年12月-2022年5月,选取重庆市3所中学767名初中生为研究对象,采用匹兹堡睡眠质量指数量表（PSQI）、青少年生活事件量表（ASLEC）和简易应对方式量表（SCSQ）评估青少年睡眠质量、负性生活事件以及应对方式。采用结构方程模型分析睡眠质量与负性生活事件、应对方式之间的关系。结果 检出存在睡眠障碍者222人（28.94%）,青少年PSQI评分与ASLEC评分、SCSQ消极应对维度评分均呈正相关（r=0.612、0.590,P均<0.01）,与积极应对维度评分呈负相关（r=-0.435,P<0.01）。构建负性生活事件、应对方式和睡眠质量关系的结构方程模型,结果显示,青少年负性生活事件对睡眠质量有直接和间接正向效应（β=0.448、0.322,P<0.05）,积极应对对睡眠质量有直接负向效应（β=-0.368,P<0.05）,消极应对对睡眠质量有直接正向效应（β=0.442,P<0.05）。结论 负性生活事件和消极应对对青少年睡眠质量产生负向影响,积极应对对青少年睡眠质量产生正向影响。     

团体认知行为治疗对广泛性焦虑障碍的临床疗效及其对患者执行功能的影响

背景 广泛性焦虑障碍（GAD）患者常存在执行功能损害。团体认知行为治疗（CBT）有助于改善GAD患者的负性情绪,但对执行功能的改善效果尚不明确。目的 探讨团体CBT对GAD患者焦虑症状和执行功能的影响,以期为GAD患者的康复治疗提供参考。方法 连续选取2021年3月—2022年8月在十堰市太和医院睡眠心身医学中心住院的、符合《精神障碍诊断与统计手册（第5版）》（DSM-5）中GAD诊断标准的80例患者为研究对象,采用随机数字表法分为研究组（n=40）和对照组（n=40）。两组均接受药物治疗及疾病健康教育,研究组在此基础上接受为期6周、每周1次、每次60~90 min的团体CBT。分别于治疗前和治疗6周后使用汉密尔顿焦虑量表（HAMA）评定焦虑症状,使用额叶功能评定量表（FAB）评定执行功能。结果 重复测量方差分析结果显示,两组HAMA评分的时间效应有统计学意义（F=1 870.320,P<0.01）,组间效应以及时间与组间的交互效应无统计学意义（F=1.254、0.293,P均>0.05）。两组FAB评分的时间效应、组间效应以及时间与组间的交互效应均有统计学意义（F=311.190、4.399、7.021,P<0.05或0.01）。进一步分析结果显示,治疗后,两组FAB评分均高于治疗前（t=200.569、115.401,P均<0.01）,且研究组FBA评分高于对照组（t=-3.211,P<0.01）。结论 团体CBT联合药物治疗可能有助于降低GAD患者焦虑水平,改善其执行功能。     

高职大专学生睡眠状况及影响因素

背景 睡眠障碍对人群身心健康及社会经济发展均会产生不良影响,高职大专学生承受着学习、就业和家庭经济状况等方面的压力,其睡眠质量可能会受到一定程度的影响。目的 探讨高职大专学生睡眠状况及影响因素,为改善高职大专学生睡眠状况提供参考。方法 于2022年1月-2月,采用分层随机抽样,选取成都市温江区5所高职大专院校的3 300名学生为研究对象。使用失眠严重程度指数量表（ISI）、患者健康问卷抑郁量表（PHQ-9）、广泛性焦虑障碍量表（GAD-7）进行评定。采用Pearson相关分析考查ISI评分与PHQ-9评分和GAD-7评分之间的相关性;采用Logistic回归分析考查失眠症状的影响因素。结果 检出2 497名（81.90%）高职大专学生存在失眠症状。不同性别、家庭经济状况、是否独生子女、学习或就业带来的心理压力、平均每天上网时长、体育锻炼以及是否有焦虑症状或抑郁症状的高职大专学生失眠症状检出率差异均有统计学意义（χ²=21.032、22.172、8.983、75.939、36.781、32.350、54.512、86.561,P<0.01或0.05）。高职大专学生ISI评分与GAD-7评分和PHQ-9评分均呈正相关（r=0.620、0.714,P均<0.01）,GAD-7评分与PHQ-9评分呈正相关（r=0.824,P<0.01）。性别、家庭经济状况、学习或就业带来的心理压力、平均每天上网时长、体育锻炼是否达标以及是否有抑郁症状可预测高职大专学生的失眠症状（P<0.01或0.05）。结论 女性、家庭经济状况一般和很差、学习或就业带来的心理压力中等或较大以及平均每天上网时长2~5 h、5~7 h、>7 h及体育锻炼未达标、存在抑郁症状是高职大专学生出现失眠症状的危险因素。     

精神障碍患者及家属病耻感与主观幸福感的相关性

目的 了解精神障碍患者及其共同居住家属的病耻感与主观幸福感现状,分析其相关性,并探索同一家庭中患者及其家属主观幸福感受病耻感影响的差异。方法 选取2019年10月-11月在成都市某三甲精神专科医院门诊就诊的精神障碍患者（n=154）及其家属（n=154）为研究对象,采用自编人口学资料调查表、自编精神疾病相关资料调查表、简明版精神疾病内在病耻感量表（ISMI-10）及幸福感指数量表（IWB）进行评定。结果 共有118名（76.62%）精神障碍患者和151名（98.05%）家属存在病耻感。家属ISMI-10总评分及各因子评分均高于患者（P均<0.01）,IWB总评分及各因子评分均低于患者（P均<0.01）;Pearson相关分析显示,患者及家属ISMI-10总评分与IWB总评分均呈负相关（r=-0.600、-0.202,P<0.05或0.01）。多元线性回归分析显示,在控制精神障碍患者人口学及疾病相关变量后,回归模型拟合较好（校正R²=0.457）,模型具有统计学意义（F=26.746,P<0.01）。精神障碍患者家属回归模型拟合较差（校正R²=0.035）,在控制家属人口学变量后,模型具有统计学意义（F=3.769,P<0.01）。结论 精神障碍患者的病耻感水平低于其家属,而主观幸福感高于家属。患者及家属的病耻感与主观幸福感密切相关。精神障碍患者病耻感是主观幸福感的重要影响因素。     

氟伏沙明对住院青少年抑郁障碍患者脂代谢的影响

背景 氟伏沙明被越来越多地用于青少年抑郁障碍的治疗,但目前关于氟伏沙明对脂代谢影响的研究较有限,而脂代谢紊乱会严重危害患者的身体健康并影响预后。目的 分析氟伏沙明对青少年抑郁障碍患者脂代谢的影响,探讨氟伏沙明治疗的安全性。方法 连续选取2022年6月—2023年6月山西省精神卫生中心住院部收治的、符合《国际疾病分类（第10版）》（ICD-10）诊断标准的60例青少年抑郁障碍患者为研究对象。采用随机数字表法分为研究组（氟伏沙明治疗）和对照组（舍曲林治疗）各30例,疗程4周。于基线期、治疗2周和4周后,检测两组空腹脂代谢指标,包括血清总胆固醇（TC）、甘油三酯（TG）、高密度脂蛋白（HDL）、低密度脂蛋白（LDL）,并进行汉密尔顿抑郁量表17项版（HAMD-17）评定。比较两组不同随访时间的脂代谢指标水平及HAMD-17评分。结果 HAMD-17评分的时间效应有统计学意义（F=849.687,P<0.01）,组间效应和交互效应均无统计学意义（F=0.033、1.760,P均>0.05）。TC水平的组间效应无计学意义（F=1.461,P=0.232）,时间效应与交互效应均有统计学意义（F=13.129、5.029,P<0.05或0.01）。TG水平的时间效应和组间效应均无统计学意义（F=0.825、0.185,P均>0.05）,交互效应有统计学意义（F=7.577,P=0.004）。HDL水平的时间效应、组间效应以及交互效应均无统计学意义（F=1.079、0.160、1.877,P均>0.05）。LDL水平的组间效应无统计学意义（F=0.019,P=0.891）,时间效应和交互效应均有统计学意义（F=6.721、9.075,P均<0.01）。结论 氟伏沙明与舍曲林对青少年抑郁障碍的疗效相当,短期应用氟伏沙明对患者脂代谢指标的影响较小。     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.