miRNA93和miRNA192在H3N2亚型SIV病毒复制及宿主抗病毒免疫中的作用

目的 探讨分离于广西猪流感病毒SW/Guangxi/NS2783/2010和SW/Guangxi/NS650/2012跨种属感染人肺腺癌A549细胞的miRNA93和miRNA192对病毒复制及宿主抗病毒免疫的影响。方法 通过测定不同稀释浓度的病毒感染细胞HA滴度值,确定病毒最佳稀释浓度。荧光定量PCR检测病毒感染细胞后miRNA93和miRNA192表达,Western blot检测病毒NP和HA蛋白表达水平;转染miRNA93和miRNA192抑制剂后,重新检测miRNA93、miRNA192、IFN-β及病毒NP、HA蛋白表达水平。结果 不同稀释度病毒感染人A549细胞后HA滴度的结果显示病毒SW2783的最佳稀释度为10^-3,而SW650的HA滴度无明显变化趋势,提示病毒SW2783对人A549细胞具有较好的适应性和感染能力。荧光定量PCR和Western blot结果提示两株病毒感染细胞后病毒NP和HA蛋白表达均先升高后降低,加入miRNA93抑制剂,两株病毒NP和HA蛋白的表达均上调;加入miRNA192抑制剂,病毒SW2783的HA蛋白表达下调（P=2.10×10^-4）,而SW650的HA蛋白表达上调（P=5.45×10^-5）,NP蛋白反而下调（P=0.034）;ELISA结果提示病毒SW2783和SW650感染细胞后炎症因子IFN-β表达水平随感染时间延长而升高。结论 研究表明miRNA93和miRNA192的表达与SIV病毒增殖及宿主抗病毒免疫有关,可作为干预猪流感病毒跨种属感染的新靶点。     

食蟹猴SPF种群建立过程中病毒抗体的动态监测

目的 调查研究从老挝引种的食蟹猴BV、SRV、SIV和STLV-1四项病毒抗体阳性、可疑的比例,并对SPF种群建立过程中四项病毒的动态变化进行了监测,进而比较普通种群和SPF种群幼猴病毒抗体的阳性率。 方法 采用专用试剂盒对四项病毒进行连续监测并进行比较分析。 结果 引种的1998只食蟹猴,BV抗体阳性比例高达52.35%,可疑比例为8.31%,抗体阴性的比例仅为39.34%;SRV和STLV-1抗体阳性率分别为7.45%和8.56%;未检测出SIV抗体阳性或可疑的食蟹猴。经过筛选后组建的SPF种群,2010年监测的BV、SRV和STLV-1三项病毒抗体阳性率分别为5.24%、1.01%和0.4%,经过连续5年的不断筛选和淘汰,截至2014年年底三种病毒抗体阳性率分别下降至0.82%、0.27%和0.27%,未监测出SIV抗体阳性或可疑的食蟹猴。普通群繁殖幼猴B病毒抗体阳性的比例为9.71%,可疑率为1.85%;而SPF繁殖种群B病毒抗体阳性率仅为0.22%。 结论 连续监测病毒抗体并不断淘汰抗体阳性和可疑的动物对组建SPF食蟹猴种群具有重要的生产意义。     

体外培养恒河猴外周血单核巨噬细胞的研究

目的：建立一种简单、经济、高效地培养恒河猴外周血单核巨噬细胞（monocyte-derived macrophage,MDM）的方法。方法：用肝素钠抗凝管采集健康成年中国恒河猴（Macaca mulatta）全血,密度梯度离心法分离外周血单核细胞（peripheral blood mononuclear cells, PBMCs）。同时用无抗凝剂采血管采集同一只猴外周血,自凝后分离血清。将猴PBMCs置于CELLBIND Surface的96孔（0.8×106个细胞/孔）或48孔培养板（3×106个细胞/孔）中,用含不同百分比的猴自体血清或胎牛血清（fetal calf serum,FCS）的RPMI 1640培养液培养24h后洗弃未贴壁细胞,加入含有猴自体血清或FCS的新鲜培养基继续培养7天后观察细胞形态学。分化良好的猴单核巨噬细胞贴壁能力强,占据板底大部分区域。胞体形态多样,多数呈长梭形。用巨噬细胞标记受体（CD14）抗体染色判断细胞纯度。并用细菌内毒素（LPS）刺激分化的巨噬细胞,检测巨噬细胞炎性因子的表达。此外,用猴艾滋病毒（SIVmac17E-Br、SIVmac251）和人-猴嵌合体艾滋病毒（SHIV KU-1）感染分化良好的猴巨噬细胞,检测病毒在猴巨噬细胞中的复制。结果：在含2%猴自体血清的RPMI 1640培养条件下,大多数（>85%）猴单核细胞能在24h内贴壁,体外分化5-7天后,猴巨噬细胞纯度大于96%。相比而言,含较高浓度（4%,8%或10%）猴自体血清或FCS的RPMI 1640 培养基对猴单核细胞的贴壁和分化作用较差。分化良好的猴巨噬细胞对LPS刺激敏感,可产生多种巨噬细胞炎性因子。此外,这些细胞对SIV或SHIV均易感,产生感染性病毒。结论：含2%猴自体血清的RPMI 1640培养基适于原代猴单核细胞的贴壁和分化。该方法简单、花费少,无需生长因子,且分化效果好,是培养猴艾滋病毒及开展相关免疫学实验的重要手段。     

A critical analysis of the cynomolgus macaque,Macaca fascicularis,as a model to test HIV-1/SIV vaccine efficacy

The use of a number of non-rhesus macaque species, but especially cynomolgus macaques as a model for HIV-1 vaccine development has increased in recent years. Cynomolgus macaques have been used in the United Kingdom, Europe, Canada and Australia as a model for HIV vaccine development for many years. Unlike rhesus macaques, cynomolgus macaques infected with SIV show a pattern of disease pathogenesis that more closely resembles that of human HIV-1 infection, exhibiting lower peak and set-point viral loads and slower progression to disease with more typical AIDS defining illnesses. Several advances have been made recently in the use of the cynomolgus macaque SIV challenge model that allow the demonstration of vaccine efficacy using attenuated viruses and vectors that are both viral and non-viral in origin. This review aims to probe the details of various vaccination trials carried out in cynomolgus macaques in the context of our modern understanding of the highly diverse immunogenetics of this species with a view to understanding the species-specific immune correlates of protection and the efficacy of vectors that have been used to design vaccines.     

Simple Mathematical Models Do Not Accurately Predict Early SIV Dynamics

Upon infection of a new host, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) replicates in the mucosal tissues and is generally undetectable in circulation for 1–2 weeks post-infection. Several interventions against HIV including vaccines and antiretroviral prophylaxis target virus replication at this earliest stage of infection. Mathematical models have been used to understand how HIV spreads from mucosal tissues systemically and what impact vaccination and/or antiretroviral prophylaxis has on viral eradication. Because predictions of such models have been rarely compared to experimental data, it remains unclear which processes included in these models are critical for predicting early HIV dynamics. Here we modified the “standard” mathematical model of HIV infection to include two populations of infected cells: cells that are actively producing the virus and cells that are transitioning into virus production mode. We evaluated the effects of several poorly known parameters on infection outcomes in this model and compared model predictions to experimental data on infection of non-human primates with variable doses of simian immunodifficiency virus (SIV). First, we found that the mode of virus production by infected cells (budding vs. bursting) has a minimal impact on the early virus dynamics for a wide range of model parameters, as long as the parameters are constrained to provide the observed rate of SIV load increase in the blood of infected animals. Interestingly and in contrast with previous results, we found that the bursting mode of virus production generally results in a higher probability of viral extinction than the budding mode of virus production. Second, this mathematical model was not able to accurately describe the change in experimentally determined probability of host infection with increasing viral doses. Third and finally, the model was also unable to accurately explain the decline in the time to virus detection with increasing viral dose. These results suggest that, in order to appropriately model early HIV/SIV dynamics, additional factors must be considered in the model development. These may include variability in monkey susceptibility to infection, within-host competition between different viruses for target cells at the initial site of virus replication in the mucosa, innate immune response, and possibly the inclusion of several different tissue compartments. The sobering news is that while an increase in model complexity is needed to explain the available experimental data, testing and rejection of more complex models may require more quantitative data than is currently available.     

Enhanced Heterosexual Transmission Hypothesis for the Origin of Pandemic HIV-1

HIV-1 M originated from SIVcpz endemic in chimpanzees from southeast Cameroon or neighboring areas, and it started to spread in the early 20th century. Here we examine the factors that may have contributed to simian-to-human transmission, local transmission between humans, and export to a city. The region had intense ape hunting, social disruption, commercial sex work, STDs, and traffic to/from Kinshasa in the period 1899–1923. Injection treatments increased sharply around 1930; however, their frequency among local patients was far lower than among modern groups experiencing parenteral HIV-1 outbreaks. Recent molecular datings of HIV-1 M fit better the period of maximal resource exploitation and trade links than the period of high injection intensity. We conclude that although local parenteral outbreaks might have occurred, these are unlikely to have caused massive transmission. World War I led to additional, and hitherto unrecognized, risks of HIV-1 emergence. We propose an Enhanced Heterosexual Transmission Hypothesis for the origin of HIV-1 M, featuring at the time and place of its origin a coincidence of favorable co-factors (ape hunting, social disruption, STDs, and mobility) for both cross-species transmission and heterosexual spread. Our hypothesis does not exclude a role for parenteral transmission in the initial viral adaptation.     

Methamphetamine Increases the Proportion of SIV-Infected Microglia/Macrophages,Alters Metabolic Pathways,and Elevates Cell Death Pathways: A Single-Cell Analysis

Both substance use disorder and HIV infection continue to affect many individuals. Both have untoward effects on the brain, and the two conditions often co-exist. In the brain, macrophages and microglia are infectable by HIV, and these cells are also targets for the effects of drugs of abuse, such as the psychostimulant methamphetamine. To determine the interaction of HIV and methamphetamine, we isolated microglia and brain macrophages from SIV-infected rhesus monkeys that were treated with or without methamphetamine. Cells were subjected to single-cell RNA sequencing and results were analyzed by statistical and bioinformatic analysis. In the animals treated with methamphetamine, a significantly increased proportion of the microglia and/or macrophages were infected by SIV. In addition, gene encoding functions in cell death pathways were increased, and the brain-derived neurotropic factor pathway was inhibited. The gene expression patterns in infected cells did not cluster separately from uninfected cells, but clusters comprised of microglia and/or macrophages from methamphetamine-treated animals differed in neuroinflammatory and metabolic pathways from those comprised of cells from untreated animals. Methamphetamine increases CNS infection by SIV and has adverse effects on both infected and uninfected microglia and brain macrophages, highlighting the dual and interacting harms of HIV infection and drug abuse on the brain.     

The oral mucosa immune environment and oral transmission of HIV/SIV

The global spread of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is dependent on the ability of this virus to efficiently cross from one host to the next by traversing a mucosal membrane. Unraveling how mucosal exposure of HIV results in systemic infection is critical for the development of effective therapeutic strategies. This review focuses on understanding the immune events associated with the oral route of transmission (via breastfeeding or sexual oral intercourse), which occurs across the oral and/or gastrointestinal mucosa. Studies in both humans and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) monkey models have identified viral changes and immune events associated with oral HIV/SIV exposure. This review covers our current knowledge of HIV oral transmission in both infants and adults, the use of SIV models in understanding early immune events, oral immune factors that modulate HIV/SIV susceptibility (including mucosal inflammation), and interventions that may impact oral HIV transmission rates. Understanding the factors that influence oral HIV transmission will provide the foundation for developing immune therapeutic and vaccine strategies that can protect both infants and adults from oral HIV transmission.     

Mucosal immunology of HIV infection

Recent advances in the immunology, pathogenesis, and prevention of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection continue to reveal clues to the mechanisms involved in the progressive immunodeficiency attributed to infection, but more importantly have shed light on the correlates of immunity to infection and disease progression. HIV selectively infects, eliminates, and/or dysregulates several key cells of the human immune system, thwarting multiple arms of the host immune response, and inflicting severe damage to mucosal barriers, resulting in tissue infiltration of ‘symbiotic’ intestinal bacteria and viruses that essentially become opportunistic infections promoting systemic immune activation. This leads to activation and recruitment or more target cells for perpetuating HIV infection, resulting in persistent, high-level viral replication in lymphoid tissues, rapid evolution of resistant strains, and continued evasion of immune responses. However, vaccine studies and studies of spontaneous controllers are finally providing correlates of immunity from protection and disease progression, including virus-specific CD4⁺ T-cell responses, binding anti-bodies, innate immune responses, and generation of antibodies with potent antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity activity. Emerging correlates of immunity indicate that prevention of HIV infection may be possible through effective vaccine strategies that protect and stimulate key regulatory cells and immune responses in susceptible hosts. Furthermore, immune therapies specifically directed toward boosting specific aspects of the immune system may eventually lead to a cure for HIV-infected patients.     

Phenotypes and distribution of mucosal memory B-cell populations in the SIV/SHIV rhesus macaque model

As vaccine-elicited antibodies have now been associated with HIV protective efficacy, a thorough understanding of mucosal and systemic B-cell development and maturation is needed. We phenotyped mucosal memory B-cells, investigated isotype expression and homing patterns, and defined plasmablasts and plasma cells at three mucosal sites (duodenum, jejunum and rectum) in rhesus macaques, the commonly used animal model for pre-clinical vaccine studies. Unlike humans, macaque mucosal memory B-cells lacked CD27 expression; only two sub-populations were present: naïve (CD21⁺CD27⁻) and tissue-like (CD21⁻CD27⁻) memory. Similar to humans, IgA was the dominant isotype expressed. The homing markers CXCR4, CCR6, CCR9 and α4β7 were differentially expressed between naïve and tissue-like memory B-cells. Mucosal plasmablasts were identified as CD19⁺CD20^+/−HLA-DR⁺Ki-67⁺IRF4⁺CD138^+/− and mucosal plasma cells as CD19⁺CD20⁻HLA-DR⁻Ki-67⁻IRF4⁺CD138⁺. Both populations were CD39^+/−CD27⁻. Plasma cell phenotype was confirmed by spontaneous IgA secretion by ELISpot of positively-selected cells and J-chain expression by real-time PCR. Duodenal, jejunal and rectal samples were similar in B-cell memory phenotype, isotype expression, homing receptors and plasmablast/plasma cell distribution among the three tissues. Thus rectal biopsies adequately monitor B-cell dynamics in the gut mucosa, and provide a critical view of mucosal B-cell events associated with development of vaccine-elicited protective immune responses and SIV/SHIV pathogenesis and disease control.