Diabetic nephropathy--prevention and treatment

Diabetic nephropathy is a major cause of end stage renal failure. Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) is more prevalent in our country than insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). Nephropathy can be classified in IDDM patients in 5 stages which have been elaborated here. The major intervention to prevent or reduce the rate of progress in diabetic nephropathy is control of blood sugar, control of blood pressure, use of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, restricting dietary protein intake, treatment with inhibitors of the formation of advanced glycosylation end products, treatment with aldose reductase inhibitors and treatment of dyslipidaemia. Once the patient of diabetic nephropathy reaches the end stage renal disease, renal replacement therapy is needed. The different modalities of renal replacement therapy are: Haemodialysis, continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis, kidney transplantation and kidney and pancreas transplantation. Renal replacement therapy in diabetics has to be individualised from patient to patient. Kidney transplantation is at present the option of choice.     

Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis and renal transplantation: a five year experience

Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis is a new and increasingly popular method of routine dialysis, but its effect on renal transplantation is uncertain. A non-randomised comparison was made of the outcome of grafting in patients who had been treated before transplantation with continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis with that in patients treated with haemodialysis. During the five years, 1979-84, after continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis was introduced to Newcastle upon Tyne 220 patients have received transplants after either continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (61 patients) or haemodialysis (159 patients). During follow up no significant differences occurred in survival of patients or grafts between the two treatment groups. One year after transplantation the percentages of survivors who had received continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis and haemodialysis were 88% and 91% respectively, and overall graft survival was 66% and 72%, respectively. A multiple regression model was used to allow for differences among patients--for example, duration of dialysis and number of preoperative transfusions--on the survival of grafts. When only first cadaver grafts were considered (in 152 patients) graft survival (non-immunological failures excluded) was not significantly different between the patients treated with continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis and haemodialysis. Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis is not a risk factor in renal transplantation, and its continued use in treatment of potential renal graft recipients is recommended.     

Renal transplantation in patients treated with haemodialysis and short term and long term continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis

Forty two adult patients who had been treated with continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis for one to 142 weeks (mean (SD) 38 (36)) received a total of 44 allografted kidneys. Twenty one had been treated with continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis for less than 26 weeks (mean 11 (8)) and the other 21 for longer than 26 weeks (mean 64 (35)). These two groups were compared with 55 patients who had been treated with haemodialysis and received a total of 63 grafts. In the group of patients treated with continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis azathioprine and low dose prednisolone were used as the immunosuppressive regimen for 20 transplantations in 18 patients, and 24 patients receiving 24 grafts were treated with cyclosporin A and low dose prednisolone. In the group of patients treated with haemodialysis 38 patients receiving 43 grafts were treated with azathioprine and low dose prednisolone, and 20 patients receiving 20 grafts were treated with cyclosporin A and low dose prednisolone. Actuarial survival of patients and grafts at two years was 95% and 72%, respectively, in the continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis group compared with 89% and 58%, respectively, in the haemodialysis group. No difference was found in graft survival between short term treatment with continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (72% graft survival) and long term treatment (65% graft survival). In conclusion, continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis is suitable treatment for patients awaiting renal transplantation.     

Life satisfaction across treatment methods for patients with end-stage renal failure

After a report which challenged the generally-held view that renal-transplant recipients have a psychological advantage compared with patients who undergo dialysis, we surveyed the quality of life and psychological distress in all patients who were managed by renal transplantation or dialysis at The Royal Newcastle Hospital Renal Unit. A questionnaire was mailed to patients which covered demographic daily illness severity; the quality of life (satisfaction with life in general, general health, and sexual, family and social relationships); a 28-item general-health questionnaire; a life-event schedule; and a locus-of-control scale. The response rate was 88%. Data were obtained on 138 subjects of whom half (69 subjects) were renal-transplant recipients. The other 69 patients were divided between those who underwent haemodialysis at home (24 patients); those who underwent haemodialysis in a hospital centre (24 patients); and those who underwent continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (21 patients). The study showed that while transplant recipients rated highest in the various aspects of quality of life, that of patients who underwent haemodialysis at home was nearly equivalent. Although patients with continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis were ranked third in terms of their quality of life, this clearly exceeded that of the group that underwent haemodialysis in a hospital centre, which generally shared very-similar demographic characteristics. Contrary to general expectations, no clear difference was found across the four treatment modalities in the proportion of patients who were disturbed psychologically or who had a history of treatment for "nervous" problems. The results confirm the superiority of renal transplantation in the treatment of end-stage renal disease but highlights the role of continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis as a well-tolerated alternative in the treatment of end-stage renal disease.     

Impact of continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis on treatment of renal failure in patients aged over 60

Thirty eight patients aged over 60 with end stage renal disease were treated by continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis for up to three years. Most of these patients, because of their age or coexisting diseases, had been considered to be unsuitable for haemodialysis by the criteria used before the advent of continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis in 1980. Actuarial patient survival at one and two years was 72% and 61% respectively, and only two patients were permanently transferred to haemodialysis. Twenty one of the 23 survivors were fully rehabilitated, the remaining two being partially disabled but living at home. Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis permits more liberal selection of patients with end stage renal disease for renal replacement treatment with excellent survival and rehabilitation and without overburdening scarce hospital haemodialysis facilities.     

Simultaneous continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis catheter implantation and inguinal hernia repair

Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis is a new modality of treatment for end stage renal disease. Although this procedure is largely underutilised in India, in Manipur this procedure is routinely offered to patients of end stage renal disease. Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis catheter implantation was started in Manipur in May, 2001. Till now continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis catheter has been implanted in 116 cases. Out of this 3 patients had associated inguinal hernia. Inguinal hernia is a relative contra-indication for continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Still the inguinal hernia was repaired in the same sitting with the catheter implantation. The procedure is described along with the outcome.     

Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis: Indian scenario

Chronic peritoneal dialysis (CPD) has been initiated as a treatment modality for chronic renal failure patients in the Indian subcontinent since 1990. Over a period of 9 years both continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) and continuous cyclic peritoneal dialysis (CCPD) have emerged as accepted forms of renal replacement therapy in our country. Although there were government restrictions on import of dialysis fluid until 1993, the availability of locally manufactured fluid in collapsible bags had facilitated the expansion of the programme to the far corners of the country and in neighbouring countries. Initially majority (78%) of the patients who were started on this programme were diabetics with other comorbid conditions who were drop-outs from haemodialysis and unfit for transplantation. Both CAPD and CCPD have been used for all age groups and for men and women. Majority of the patients do 3 x 2 l exchanges a day on CAPD; 8-10 l using a cycler at night those who are onCCPD. Peritonitis rate was 1 episode every 18 patient months. With the introduction of new connection and disposable sets the incidence of peritonitis is dropping down. The major cause of drop-out is cardiovascular death followed by peritonitis. Malnutrition is a major problem in both CAPD and haemodialysis patients. The programme has been expanded and there are over one thousand patients on this treatment in the country. The introduction of CPD had a major impact on the treatment of renal failure in India.     

A large regional hospital's experience with treatment of end-stage renal disease.

During the first 10 years of the treatment program for end-stage renal disease at the Saint John (New Brunswick) Regional Hospital 164 adults were treated by hemodialysis (with or without renal transplantation, performed outside of the province) or peritoneal dialysis. The primary causes of renal disease were not significantly different in men and women except for glomerulonephritis, which was twice as common in men as in women. Life-table analysis showed that the younger transplant recipients had the highest survival rate, but that the prognosis was almost as good among the much older patients who received continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Probably because they tended to be younger and their renal disease was caused by less threatening conditions, men survived longer than women. The survival rates were significantly related to the primary cause of the renal disease; patients with diabetes or systemic disease had the worst prognosis. Overall, these results compare well with those obtained in major university centres.     

腹膜透析病人营养状况的临床观察

目的　前瞻性观察终末期肾衰 (ESRD)病人的营养状况及影响因素。方法　对 84例持续性非卧床式腹膜透析 (CAPD)病人进行主观综合性营养评估 (SGA)、人体测量、生化指标的测定。结果　 84例病人中A组(营养良好组 ) 2 6例 (30 95 % ) ;B组 (轻中度营养不良组 ) 4 5例 (5 3 5 7% ) ;C组 (重度营养不良组 ) 13例(15 4 8% )。测量指标平均每日每公斤体重蛋白质摄入 (DPI)、血清白蛋白 (ALB)、前清白蛋白 (Pre -A)、转铁蛋白 (TF)、氮出现率相当蛋白 (nPNA)、血肌酐 (Scr) ,3组间均有明显差异 (P <0 0 1或P <0 0 5 )。肌酐清除率 (Ccr)和尿素清除指数 (KT/V) ,C组低于A组与B组 (P <0 0 1或P <0 0 5 )。上臂围 (AC) ,三头肌皮褶厚度 (TSF)及上臂肌围 (AMC)、尿素氮 (BUN)及血胆固醇 (CH) ,3组间均未见明显差别 (P >0 0 5 )。结论　ESRD的CAPD病人营养不良发生率较高 ,可能与蛋白质摄入不足、透析前营养状况、残余肾功能、酸中毒、糖尿病、心理因素及经济状况等因素有关。     

Effect of continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis on a British renal unit

Experience in the use of continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) for the treatment of end stage renal failure in Nottingham was reviewed. During six years 150 patients aged from 11 to 73 received this type of treatment. At three years patient actuarial survival was 69% and CAPD technique survival was 41%. Although CAPD was satisfactory as a first treatment for many patients, its long term use was possible in only a few. Actuarial survival of patients who changed to haemodialysis was 64% at one year after the change, suggesting that unsuccessful CAPD increased the risk of death. Hospital haemodialysis was the only suitable form of treatment for most patients in whom CAPD had been abandoned. British renal units have adopted CAPD to a much greater extent than those in Europe, but care in the selection of patients is necessary to reduce mortality, and many patients may eventually need hospital haemodialysis. Greater numbers of hospital haemodialysis places will probably have to be made available to meet this extra demand.     

Intraperitoneal insulin in uraemic diabetics undergoing continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis

The kinetics of absorption of intraperitoneally administered insulin were studied in nine uraemic insulin-dependent diabetics undergoing continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). In each of three studies 20 U of regular insulin was directly injected as a bolus into the peritoneal cavity through an indwelling Tenckhoff catheter. In two procedures the insulin injection was followed by the instillation of either 2 litres of 1.5% dextrose dialysates or 2 litres of 4.5% dextrose dialysate. In the third 20 ml of saline was used to flush the tubing. Plasma free insulin values rose more rapidly and reached significantly higher concentrations (55.6 +/- 18.8 mU/l) when the insulin had been injected into an empty peritoneal cavity than when it was followed by dialysate. These differences were observed despite the fact that most of the insulin injected was retained by the patients. Since the plasma insulin values did not differ after instillations of dialysate containing 1.5% and 4.5% dextrose, the osmolality of the dialysate seemed not to affect insulin absorption, and the dilution of the insulin probably delayed its transfer through the peritoneum. These findings suggest that insulin given intraperitoneally to patients undergoing CAPD will be most effective if it is given into an empty peritoneal cavity at least 30 minutes before the dialysate is instilled.     

早期日间非卧床腹膜透析在终末期肾病治疗中的优势探讨

目的 探讨早期日间非卧床腹膜透析在终末期肾病治疗中的优势。方法 纳入84 例初始腹膜透析患者,随机分为两组：日间非卧床腹膜透析（DAPD）组（n =40）：接受日间非卧床腹膜透析;持续不卧床腹膜透析（CAPD）组（n =44）：接受持续不卧床腹膜透析。两组均继续接受常规药物治疗。随访24 个月,全部患者每6 个月监测钙、磷及甲状旁腺激素等指标,记录尿量、透析剂量、透析效能和残余肾功能的变化。结果 两组患者低钙、高磷血症较治疗前有所纠正,差异有统计学意义（P <0.01）,24 个月时DAPD 组血磷水平与CAPD 组比较,差异有统计学意义（P <0.05）,DAPD 组低于CAPD 组。CAPD 组治疗早期甲状旁腺激素水平与DAPD 组比较,差异有统计学意义（P <0.05）,CAPD 组低于DAPD 组,但18 个月后差异无统计学意义（P >0.05）。两组患者尿量及残余肾功能均随着治疗延续而逐渐下降,12 个月后CAPD 组低于DAPD组。DAPD 组12 个月后残余肾尿素清除指数（Kt/V）高于CAPD 组,18 个月后腹透液剂量低于CAPD 组。结论 早期DAPD 能较好地改善患者钙磷代谢紊乱。DAPD 对残余肾功能保护较好,残余肾Kt/V 较高,使用腹透液剂量较少。     

左旋卡尼汀对尿毒症腹透患者心功能不全的治疗作用

目的探讨左旋卡尼汀对尿毒症腹透患者心功能不全的治疗作用。方法选择维持性腹膜透析患者30例，分为对照组15例和治疗组15例，对照组给予维持性的腹膜透析，治疗组在维持性腹膜透析同时予左旋卡尼汀治疗．疗程均为30d。分别于治疗后评价疗效。结果治疗组心功能改善有效率为93．7％，明显高于对照组的73．3％（P〈0．01）。治疗前后心率、血压、心输出量及左室射血分数均有显著改善（P〈0．05）。治疗组与对照组比较差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。结论维持性腹膜透析的尿毒症患者同时使用左旋卡尼汀，心功能明显改善。     

小剂量日间非卧床腹膜透析对糖尿病肾病患者的临床疗效观察

目的研究小剂量日间非卧床腹膜透析（DAPD）和小剂量持续非卧床腹膜透析（CAPD）对残肾功能较好的糖尿病。肾病性尿毒症（DNU）患者的疗效。方法将38例DNU患者随机分为观察组和对照组,分别予DAPD模式、CAPD模式进行治疗,疗程为6个月。观察比较治疗前后两组的腹膜尿素氮清除率（Kt／V）、残肾Kt／V、残余肾小球滤过率（rGFR）、24h尿蛋白量（Upro）、空腹血糖（FBG）、糖化血红蛋白（HbA1c）及胰岛素（RI）使用剂量、24h腹透液蛋白（Dpro）、血清白蛋白（ALB）、血红蛋白（HGB）的变化。结果治疗后,观察组的残肾Kt／V、rGFR、ALB、HGB显著高于对照组（P〈0．05）,Upro显著低于对照组（P〈0．05）,而观察组的腹膜Kt／V、FBG、HbA1c及RI使用剂量治疗前后均无显著变化（P〉0．05）,治疗后,对照组的FBG、HbA1c及RI使用剂量均显著高于观察组（P〈0．01）。结论对于残肾功能较好的DNU患者,DAPD较CAPD能更好地保护患者的残肾功能,控制血糖,改善患者的营养状态。     

持续性非卧床腹膜透析患者退出原因分析

目的探讨持续性非卧床腹膜透析（CAPD）患者的退出原因及相应的防治措施。方法收集2005年1月~2010年1月因慢性肾衰竭接受CAPD的140例患者临床资料,分析患者退出腹膜透析的时间和原因,并对死亡病例的死因进行分析。结果 140例患者中因各种原因退出腹膜透析共37例,退出率为26.4%（37/140）;其中死亡21例,转血液透析7例,肾移植9例。结论死亡是CAPD患者短期内退出腹膜透析的主要原因,而心脑血管事件、腹膜炎是导致CAPD患者死亡的主要原因。因此应积极加强透析前的系统治疗及腹膜透析患者透析后的持续合理管理。     

腹膜透析患者生存状况及危险因素研究

摘要：目的  了解腹膜透析患者生存状况,探讨影响腹膜透析患者长期生存的因素。方法  回顾性分析2010年6月1日-2014年5月31日在中南大学湘雅二医院腹膜透析中心植入腹透管并开始腹透的338例患者的临床资料,采用Kaplan-Meier法计算患者生存率,绘制生存曲线,利用多因素COX回归模型计算风险比值,了解影响腹膜透析患者生存率的危险因素。结果  截止2015年12月31日,继续腹透235例（69.5%）,转肾移植18例（5.3%）,转血透32例（9.5%）,死亡42例（12.4%）,失访11例（3.3%）。腹膜透析患者半年生存率为92.9%,1年生存率86.3%,2年生存率76.5%,3年生存率73.6%,5年生存率70.4%。血清白蛋白、残余肾功能、腹膜感染是影响腹膜透析患者生存的危险因素（P <0.05）。结论  中南大学湘雅二医院腹膜透析中心腹膜透析患者早期生存率与国内报道水平相近,5年生存率较高。血清白蛋白、残余肾功能、腹膜感染是影响腹膜透析患者生存的主要危险因素。

     

Epidemiological study of prevalence of chlorpropamide alcohol flushing in insulin dependent diabetics, non-insulin dependent diabetics, and non-diabetics

An epidemiological study was carried out to compare the prevalence of facial flushing in non-diabetics, patients with insulin dependent diabetes, and patients with non-insulin dependent diabetes in response to 40 ml sherry taken 12 hours after 250 mg chlorpropamide or placebo, administered double blind in randomised order. A flush after chlorpropamide but not placebo was reported by 6.2% of non-diabetics (17/273), 9.7% of insulin-dependent diabetics (14/145), and 10.5% of non-insulin dependent diabetics (25/239), excluding those receiving long term chlorpropamide treatment. The differences were not significant. This response was unrelated to age, sex, body mass index, and family history of diabetes in all three groups. Patients taking long term chlorpropamide, however, showed a significantly (p less than 0.01) higher prevalence of flushing after both chlorpropamide and placebo (56.3%; 9/16) compared with the rest of the non-insulin dependent diabetics (16.7%; 40/239), the insulin dependent diabetics (6.9%; 10/145), and the non-diabetics (5.9%; 16/273). Patients receiving long term chlorpropamide would be expected to flush with sherry after a placebo tablet because of therapeutic plasma concentrations of the drug. It is concluded that there is no evidence of an increased prevalence of chlorpropamide alcohol flushing in response to the single challenge test in non-insulin dependent diabetics compared with insulin dependent diabetics and non-diabetics except in selected patients taking chlorpropamide long term. This study does not support the hypothesis that the chlorpropamide alcohol flush is a specific marker for a subtype of non-insulin dependent diabetes.     

左卡尼汀对腹膜透析患者微炎症和营养状态的影响

目的探讨左卡尼汀对慢性肾衰竭腹膜透析患者微炎症和营养状态的影响。方法 30例慢性肾衰竭腹膜透析患者均行规律的持续非卧床腹膜透析6个月以上,然后予左卡尼汀1 g加入0.9%的氯化钠注射液20 mL静脉注射治疗,每周3次,连续应用12周。在治疗前后检测血尿素氮、肌酐、血红蛋白(Hb)、清蛋白(Alb)、超敏C反应蛋白(hs-CRP)、白细胞介素6(IL-6),并使用改良主观全面营养评价法(SGA)对患者进行营养评估。结果 30例腹膜透析患者在治疗后Scr、Hb、Alb较治疗前升高,hs-CRP、IL-6、BUN较治疗前降低,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论左卡尼汀可以改善慢性肾衰竭腹膜透析患者的微炎症和营养状态。     

肾康保护腹膜透析患者残余肾功能的临床研究

目的探讨肾康注射液对尿毒症腹膜透析患者残余肾功能的保护作用。方法选择尿毒症腹膜透析患者40例,随机分为对照组20例和治疗组20例,2组均进行持续不卧床腹膜透析（CAPD）。治疗组分别于第1、4月开始予肾康注射液60ml,静脉滴注1次／d,连续14d,分别于治疗前后测定患者的肌酐清除率（GFR）作为残余肾功能（RRF）评价疗效。结果治疗组治疗前后肌酐清除率无明显下降（P〉0．05）,而对照组治疗前后肌酐清除率下降明显（P〈0．05）,对照组与治疗组治疗后相比肾脏肌酐清除率明显下降（P〈0．05）。结论。肾康注射液对尿毒症腹膜透析患者的残余肾功能有保护作用。     

Mortality rates among patients with end-stage renal disease in Canada, 1981-86.

We assessed the mortality rates by age, sex, race, blood type, primary diagnosis, treatment and transplantation history of 8432 patients in Canada for whom end-stage renal disease (ESRD) was diagnosed between 1981 and 1986. Significant differences in the probability of dying were found between those with and without diabetes mellitus, between those who had received a renal transplant and those who had not, between white and nonwhite patients and between various age groups. The mortality rates of the ESRD patients were at least three times higher than those of the general Canadian population. Primary diagnosis and treatment were significantly associated with the risk of dying among the ESRD patients. For those who had received a transplant, the length of time spent waiting for a transplant was positively associated with the risk of death from ESRD. Patients who had received peritoneal dialysis before transplantation had a higher risk of death than those who had received either hemodialysis (risk ratio 1.3) or transplantation (risk ratio 3.2) as the first treatment. No significant differences were found in the cause of death between those who had received peritoneal dialysis and those who had received hemodialysis. Almost half of the deaths among women without diabetes who had received a transplant were due to infection.