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目的 探讨原位肝移植(OLT)术后胆道狭窄(BS)的介入治疗方法和疗效。方法 1993年1月至2003年5月，应用经皮肝穿刺胆道造影(PTC)、经十二指肠镜逆行胆道造影(ERC)或经T管窦道胆道球囊扩张术、内支架术或引流术治疗7例OLT术后BS。结果 7例中2例经PTC胆道介入治疗3次，2次成功；5人经ERC胆道介入治疗13次，均成功；1例经T管窦道胆道引流3次，均成功。6例治愈，治愈率达85．7％。1例长期携带肝内胆管引流管，术后13个月死于肝功能衰竭。结论 经PTC、ERC或T管窦道胆道球囊扩张术、内支架术或引流术是OLT术后BS的有效介入治疗方法。     

原位肝移植术后胆管狭窄的治疗(附43例报告)

目的探讨原位肝移植（0LT）术后胆管狭窄（BS）治疗方法和疗效。方法回顾性分析中山大学附属第三医院肝脏移植中心2003年10月至2005年10月收治的们例OLT术后BS的治疗方法及其疗效。们例BS的治疗方法主要包括经十二指肠镜逆行胆管造影（ERC）、经皮肝穿刺胆管造影（PTC）、经T管的胆管介入治疗、胆肠吻合术、肝动脉内支架术及再次肝移植术。结果们例BS总治愈率为48．8％（21／43），好转率为30．2％（13／43），总有效率为79．0％（34／43）。41例BS的介入治疗治愈率为34．1％（14／41），好转率为31．7％（13／41），总有效率为65．8％（27／41）。吻合口型、肝外型、肝内型及肝内外混舍型BS的总治愈率分别为100％（5／5）、64．3％（9／14）、50．O％（1／2）及28．6％（6／21），其介入治疗的治愈率分别为80．0％（4／5）、64．3％（9／14）、50．0％（1／2）及0。12例BS行再次肝移植术的治愈率为50．0％（6／12）。结论目前OLT术后BS总体疗效尚不理想。BS介入治疗效果与其类型密切相关，吻合口型疗效最好，肝外型和肝内型次之，肝内外混舍型疗效最盖。再次肝移植是治疗难治性BS的有效方法，但要选择好手术时机。     

经ERC介入治疗肝移植术后胆管狭窄

目的探讨经ERC介入治疗肝移植术后胆管狭窄的效果。方法收集2005年1月至2007年6月我院收住的肝移植术后胆管狭窄的60例患者的相关资料,归纳分析ERC介入治疗的效果。结果患者就诊的症状主要为胆道梗阻和胆管炎表现。60例胆管狭窄的ERC介入治疗治愈率为55%（33/60）,好转率为30%（18/60）,总有效率为85%（51/60）。吻合口型、肝外型、肝内型及肝内外混合型BS的介入治疗治愈率分别为100%（6/6）、63.6%（7/11）、27.2%（3/11）及53.1%（17/32）。结论肝移植术后胆管狭窄既有特征性表现,又有多样性表现,已成为肝移植术后再次就诊的主要原因,经ERC介入治疗是肝移植术后胆管狭窄的首选。但目前肝移植术后胆管狭窄总体疗效尚不是很理想,治疗效果与其类型密切相关,吻合口型疗效最好,肝外型次之,肝内外混合型和肝内型疗效较差。     

经内镜逆行胆管造影在肝移植术后胆管并发症中的应用价值

目的探讨经内镜逆行胆管造影在肝移植术后胆管并发症中的应用价值。方法回顾分析本中心2003年10月至2006年3月经内镜逆行胆管造影诊断及治疗的71例肝移植术后胆管并发症的资料。71例胆管并发症包括52例胆管狭窄、6例胆漏和13例胆管结石。结果经内镜逆行胆管造影诊断胆管狭窄、胆漏和胆管结石的成功率分别为98．1％（51／52）、100％和100％（13／13）。经内镜逆行胆管造影介入治疗胆管吻合口狭窄、肝外型、肝门型、肝内型和弥漫型胆管狭窄的治愈率分别均为66．7％、66．7％、0、0和0,治疗胆漏的治愈率为66,7％,治疗胆总管结石和肝内胆管结石的治愈率分别为77．8％和0。结论经内镜逆行胆管造影是肝移植术后胆管并发症的有效诊断方法。不同类型的胆管并发症经内镜逆行胆管造影介入治疗的疗效不同。经内镜逆行胆管造影介入治疗仅能治愈部分胆管并发症（如胆管吻合口狭窄、肝外型胆管狭窄、轻中度胆漏及胆总管结石）。     

晚期阻塞性黄疸减黄术式选择

目的 了解各种肝内胆管引流治疗不能切除的恶性胆道梗阻的疗效。方法 采用肝门部胆囊床，肝表面，肝正中裂，肝方叶切除和介入治疗等方法行肝内胆管内或外引流术。结果 手术组；肝门部入路51例，经胆囊床入路5例，经肝表面入路27例，经肝正中裂入路50例，肝方切除10例；手术行肝内胆管外流术42例，行肝内胆管胆总管与空肠吻合术47例，行置管贺桥内引流术54例，所有病人无手术死亡，手术成功率为81%，减黄效果显著，减黄有效率78.3%，术后并发症有胆漏，膈下感染，切口感染和导管堵塞，介入组；右肝内胆管外引流（PTCD）7例，左右肝管外引流（PTCD）10例，行胆管外引流（PTBD PTBS）33例，减黄效果显著，减黄有效率80%，术后有胆管炎和胰腺炎发生。结论 肝内胆管引流是治疗不能切除的恶性胆道梗阻的重要方法。能减轻症状，提高生活质量和延长生命。     

肝移植术后肝动脉狭窄患者胆管并发症的治疗

目的 探讨原位肝移植术（OLT）后肝动脉狭窄（HAS）患者胆管并发症的发生率及肝动脉介入治疗对胆管并发症的预防和治疗作用.方法 回顾分析本中心2003年10月至2006年3月22例OLT后HAS患者胆管并发症的发生情况,并分析HAS的介入治疗对胆管并发症的预防和治疗作用.结果 22例OLT术后HAS患者,3例于术后近期行再次肝移植术,1例死于严重感染.其余18例HAS患者中,GGT和ALP升高发生率为100%,胆管狭窄（BS）的发生率为61.1%（11/18）,胆漏的发生率为5.6%（1/18）.12例患者接受肝动脉介入治疗后,6（50%）例发生BS,经胆道介入治疗后,0例治愈,6（100%）例好转;2例患者未行肝动脉介入治疗,1例发生BS,经保守治疗治愈;4例患者在出现BS后诊断HAS,均接受肝动脉和胆道介入治疗,0例治愈,3（3/4）例好转,1（1/4）例无效.结论 OLT后合并HAS患者的胆管并发症发生率较高,肝动脉介入治疗对HAS患者胆管并发症的预防和治疗作用不理想.     

经PTC或ERC两种途径放置胆道支架治疗恶性胆管梗阻对比分析

目的比较经PTC或ERC两种途径放置胆道支架治疗恶性胆管梗阻的疗效。方法 PTC途径:在超声引导下选择胆管走行与胆总管夹角较大、扩张的左右肝内胆管,穿刺置管引流,1周后再置入支架,共68例(其中有2例系ERC途径失败者)。ERC途径:在十二指肠镜下逆行插入引流管于胆总管内,经造影显示梗阻部位,其引导丝通过梗阻部位,然后沿引导丝置入支架,共53例。结果 经PTC或ERC途径放置支架成功率分别为100%(68/68)和96.2%(51/53),2组均未发生出血及漏胆并发症。全部患者获随访1～18个月(平均12.4个月),结果PTC组和ERC组放置支架后6个月内死亡者分别为7和5例,18个月仍存活者分别为17和9例。结论对失去手术机会或不能耐受手术的恶性胆管梗阻患者采取支架置入是有效解除梗阻、延长生存时间和提高生存质量的最佳方法。位于胆总管下端和壶腹部的梗阻首选ERC途径放置支架;位于肝门部及以上的梗阻应以PTC途径放置支架为宜。     

超声引导下经皮肝穿刺胆管引流术治疗阻塞性黄疸的临床价值

目的探讨超声引导下经皮经肝穿刺胆管引流术（PTCD）治疗阻塞性黄疸的临床应用价值。方法回顾性分析PTCD治疗149例阻塞性黄疸患者的成功率与并发症,其中胆管癌60例,胆管结石35例,胰头癌28例,手术后胆管狭窄8例,急性化脓性胆管炎6例,胆囊癌7例,壶腹周围癌3例,胰体癌2例。结果146例穿刺成功（146／149,97．99％）,其中经肝左叶肝内胆管置管104例,经肝右叶肝内胆管置管34例,肝左叶及肝右叶肝内胆管均置管8例。3例穿刺失败,均为胆管癌（3／149,2．01％）,其中2例因肝内胆管内径纤细、穿刺路径过深而无法成功植入引流管;1例因穿刺胆管持续出血而被迫终止手术。穿刺术后随访1周～18个月,除3例患者出现引流管脱出、1例胆管感染外,其余病例均引流通畅,无明显并发症。结论彩色多普勒超声引导下PTCD治疗阻塞性黄疸操作简便,安全、有效。     

肝内胆管结石合并肝胆管癌：附24例报告

目的探讨肝内胆管结石与肝胆管癌发生的关系及提高早期诊断的措施。方法回顾性分析近20年收治的24例肝内胆管结石并发肝胆管癌患者的临床资料。结果肝内胆管结石并肝内胆管肿瘤在所有肝内胆管结石的病例中占2．8％（24／860），癌肿均发生于含结石胆管处，部分切片中可见癌与不同程度的胆管上皮不典型增生同时存在。术前B超、CT和MRI／MPCP对肝内胆管结石并发肝占位病变诊断率分别为40．9％（9／22），53．8％（7／13）和66．7％（4／6）；手术切除率70．8％（17／24），根治性切除率为33．3％（8／24）例，姑息切除率为37．5％（9／24）。术后1．3年生存率：根治组为62．5％，25．0％，姑息性组为33．3％，11．1％，活检组为0％。结论长期肝内胆管结石反复发作是引起胆管癌发生的重要原因；结石型肝内胆管癌的延误诊断率高、根治性切除率低、预后差。重视结石型肝胆管癌临床延误诊断的原因并采取相应的避免措施有助于早期诊断。     

超声引导经皮肝穿刺胆管引流术治疗恶性梗阻性黄疸

目的探讨超声引导经皮肝穿刺胆管引流术（PTCD）在恶性梗阻性黄疸患者治疗中的应用价值。方法经超声引导对25例恶性梗阻性黄疸患者行PTCD,观察手术疗效及并发症发生情况。结果25例患者均成功穿刺引流,一次穿刺成功率为92.00%（23/25）,术后3～6日25例患者黄疸均减退。出院时血清总胆红素和肝内胆管超声测值均较术前降低（P〈0.05）。术后并发症主要有胆汁外渗1例,引流出少量血性胆汁1例。结论超声引导下PTCD具有操作简便、疗效确切、安全性高等优点,可作为恶性梗阻性黄疸术前减黄及姑息性治疗的首选方法。     

Reduction of Plasma Fibrinogen, Immunoglobulin G, and Immunoglobulin M Concentrations by Immunoadsorption Therapy with Tryptophan and Phenylalanine Adsorbents

Abstract Immunoadsorption (1A) therapy with tryptophan (TR-350) or phenylalanine (PH-350) adsorbents has been used to reduce the concentration of serum antibodies in human lymphocyte antigen (HLA)-immunized patients. Other forms of plasma purification have been reported to reduce the level of fibrinogen, which affects the blood properties. In this study we investigated the effects of IA therapy using both adsorbents on plasma fibrinogen and immunoglobulins G and M in 13 patients (8 patients were treated with TR-350, and 5 patients were treated with PH-350). During each session 1 plasma volume (2.8 ± 0.4 L of plasma) was processed through the immunocolumn and then returned to the patient together with the blood cells. Compared with the pretreatment values, the plasma fibrinogen, IgG, and IgM concentrations were significantly reduced after IA therapy (p < 0.01 for TR-350; p < 0.04 for PH-350). There was a positive correlation between the degree of reduction of plasma proteins and the number of IA treatments given. A nonpara-metric test (Wilcoxon's signed-rank test or the Mann-Whitney test) was used for statistical analysis. We conclude from our study that IA therapy effectively lowers the plasma levels of fibrinogen, IgG, and IgM and thus can be considered a valuable alternative to other blood purification methods.     

Is the recovery profile of mivacurium independent of the rate of decay of its plasma concentration in patients with normal plasma cholinesterase activity?

Background: The duration of action of muscle relaxants is poorly correlated to the rate of decay of their plasma concentration. The plasma concentration of mivacurium may rapidly decrease below its active concentration because of the extensive hydrolysis of mivacurium. By inflating a tourniquet on one upper limb for 3 min after the administration of atracurium, mivacurium or vecuronium, we studied the influence of the initial decline of their plasma concentration on their effect. Methods: In 50 patients anaesthetised with thiopental, isoflurane and fentanyl, the effect of bolus doses of 0.15 or 0.25 mg . kg^?1 mivacurium (MIV 15, MIV 25), 0.3 or 0.5 mg . kg^?1 atracurium (ATR 30, ATR 50) and 0.06 or 0.1 mg . kg^?1 vecuronium (VEC 06, VEC 10) were measured on both arms (evoked response of the adductor pollicis to train-of-four stimulation every 12 s), a tourniquet being applied on one arm just before and during 3 min after the muscle relaxant bolus. Results: Tourniquet inflation of 3 min almost abolished the neuromuscular effect of mivacurium. In the vecuronium groups and in the ATR 50 group, tourniquet inflation did not modify the maximum degree of depression of the twitch response. Also, the duration of action of vecuronium was unaffected by the tourniquet. In the ATR 30 group, times to return of the twitch response to 25% (duration 25%) and 75% (duration 75%) of control response were significantly shorter in the cuffed arm, 23 min vs 27 min, and 41 min vs 45 min, respectively. In the ATR 50 group, only duration 25% was significantly shorter in the cuffed arm (41 min vs 45 min). Conclusion: The results suggest that the rate of decline of the plasma concentration of mivacurium is so rapid, that a very low and almost clinically ineffective concentration is present as soon as 3 min after its administration. The results also indicate that the recovery from a mivacurium-induced neuromuscular blockade is not influenced by the rate of decay of its plasma concentration in patients with genotypically normal plasma cholinesterase.     

Membranes in Artificial Organs

Abstract: Membrane processes play a pivotal and enabling role in modern replacement therapy for acute and chronic organ failure and in the management of immunologic diseases. In fact, virtually all contemporary extracorporeal blood purification methods employ membrane devices, and the next generation of artificial organs and tissue engineering therapies are almost certain to be similarly grounded in membrane technology. In this short essay, we comment on the similarities and differences among synthetic membranes and their natural counterparts and also provide a critical overview of the demographics and technology of hemodialysis, hemofiltration, apheresis, oxygenation, and emerging membrane technologies and applications.     

The multiply injured child

Blunt trauma is the principal cause of childhood death in many developed countries. This review outlines the differences between adults and children with respect to resuscitation and treatment of orthopaedic injuries in a child with polytrauma. Recent advances in techniques of fracture stabilization are reported.     

Dilemma of Membrane Biocompatibility and Reuse

Abstract: Numerous articles have been published on the multiple use of dialyzers and on the effect of different reprocessing chemicals and techniques on the dialyzer biocompatibility and performance. The results often appear contradictory, especially those comparing standard biocompatibility parameters. Despite this confusion, a discerning review of the published works allows certain limited conclusions to be drawn. Reprocessing of used hemodialyzers changes the biocompatibility profile of a dialyzer as defined by the parameters complement activation. leukopenia, and cytokine release. The effect of reprocessing depends on the chemicals and reprocessing technique applied and also on the type of membrane polymer being subjected to the reprocessing procedure. Reports of pyrogenic reactions indicate that the flux of the membrane also influences how suitable it is for safe reuse. An increased risk of allergic and pyrogenic reactions appears to be associated with dialyzer reuse. Furthermore, there has been a lack of investigations into the immunologic effect of the layer of adsorbed and chemically altered proteins that remains on the inner surface of reprocessed dialyzers. We conclude that the clinical benefit of dialyzer reuse cannot be generally accepted from a biocompatibility point of view.     

The analgesic effect of racemic ketamine in patients with chronic ischemic pain due to lower extremity arteriosclerosis obliterans

Background : Ketamine in sub-dissociative doses has been shown to have analgesic and phantom-Limb pain, where conventional treatment has often failed. Chronic ischemic pain due to lower extremity arteriosclerosis obliterans often responds poorly to analgesics, and the pain-generating mechanisms are not well understood.
Methods : Eight patients with rest pain in the lower extremity due to arteriosclerosis obliterans were given sub-dissociative doses of 0.15, 0.30, or 0.45 mg/kg racemic ketamine and morphine 10 mg as a 5-min infusion on four separate days in a cross-over, double-blind, randomised protocol. Plasma levels of (S)- and (R)-ketamine and their nor-metabolites were analysed with an enantioselective high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. Pain levels were evaluated with a visual analogue scale (VAS).
Results : Individual pain levels were highly variable during and after all the infusions but the pooled pain levels showed a dose-dependent analgesic effect of ketamine with a transient but complete pain relief in all patients at the highest dose (0.45 mg/ kg). Side-effects, mainly disturbed cognition and perception, were pronounced and dose-dependent. Morphine 10 mg had an analgesic peak at 20 min and 5/8 patients had complete pain relief. The remaining 3 patients also had high baseline pain scores, indicating a higher analgesic potency for the 0.30 and 0.45 mg/ kg ketamine doses than for morphine 10 mg.
Conclusion : We have demonstrated a potent dose-dependent analgesic effect of racemic ketamine in clinical ischemic pain. Due to a narrow therapeutic window, this analgesic effect is probably best utilised in combination with other analgesics.     

Intravenous endotoxin does not increase tissue extravasation of albumin in rats

Background : It is unclear whether activation of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) increases or decreases the extravasation of plasma.
Methods : Chloralose anaesthetised male Wistar rats received E. coli lipopolysacharide (LPS), 3 mg kg^-1 i.v., or the corresponding volume of saline, 3 or 5 h before the end of the experiment. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR) were recorded. Tissue clearance of radio-labelled albumin, during the last 2 h of each experiment, was determined by a double-isotope method. In separate animals, the serum concentration of nitrite and nitrate was determined, 5 h after LPS or the solvent.
Main Results : LPS initially decreased MAP and lastingly increased HR. In the 3-h LPS animals (n=8), tissue plasma clearance was lower in the heart and calf muscle and increased only in diaphragm, compared to corresponding control animals (n=8). In the 5-h LPS rats, clearance was lowered (n=8) in the entire gastrointestinal tract and in testes, compared to controls (n=8). The serum nitrite/nitrate concentration was higher in animals given LPS (n=6) than in controls (n=6).
Conclusion : After LPS, tissue clearance of albumin was not increased in any major tissue, in spite of increased serum levels of NO end products. Apparently, after activation of iNOS, the augmented release of NO is not necessarily associated with increased albumin extravasation.     

Adrenaline markedly improves thoracic epidural analgesia produced by a low-dose infusion of bupivacaine, fentanyl and adrenaline after major surgery: A randomised, double-blind, cross-over study with and without adrenaline

Background: Basic pharmacological research indicates that there are synergistic antinociceptive effects at the spinal cord level between adrenaline, fentanyl and bupivacaine. Our clinical experience with such a mixture in a thoracic epidural infusion after major surgery confirms this. The objectives of the present study were to evaluate the effects on postoperative pain intensity, pain relief and side effects when removing adrenaline from this triple epidural mixture. Methods: A prospective, randomised, double-blind, cross-over study was carried out in 24 patients after major thoracic or abdominal surgery. Patients with only mild pain when coughing during a titrated thoracic epidural infusion of about 10 ml · h^?1 of bupivacaine 1 mg · ml^?1, fentanyl 2 μg · ml^?1, and adrenaline 2 μg · ml^?1 were included. On the 1^st and 2^nd postoperative days each patient was given a double-blind epidural infusion, at the same rate, with or without adrenaline. The effect was observed for 4 h or until pain when coughing became unacceptable in spite of a rescue analgesic procedure. Rescue analgesia consisted of up to two epidural bolus injections per hour and i.v. morphine if necessary. All patients received rectal paracetamol 1 g, every 8 h. Fentanyl serum concentrations were measured with a radioimmunoassay technique at the start and end of each study period. Main outcome measures were extent of sensory blockade and pain intensity at rest and when coughing, evaluated by a visual analogue scale, a verbal categorical rating scale, the Prince Henry Hospital pain score, and an overall quality of pain relief score. Results: The number of hypaesthetic dermatomal segments decreased (P <0.001) and pain intensity at rest and when coughing increased (P <0.001) when adrenaline was omitted from the triple epidural mixture. This change started within the first hour after removing adrenaline. After 3 h pain intensity when coughing had increased to unacceptable levels in spite of rescue analgesia (epidural bolus injections and i.v. morphine). Within 15–20 min after restarting the triple epidural mixture with adrenaline, pain intensity was again reduced to mild pain when coughing. Serum concentration of fentanyl doubled from 0.22 to 0.45 ng · ml^?1 (P <0.01), and there was more sedation during the period without adrenaline. Conclusions: Adrenaline increases sensory block and improves the pain-relieving effect of a mixture of bupivacaine and fentanyl infused epidurally at a thoracic level after major thoracic or abdominal surgery. Serum fentanyl concentrations doubled and sedation increased when adrenaline was removed from the epidural infusion, indicating more rapid vascular absorption and systemic effects of fentanyl.