肾移植术后低剂量他克莫司免疫抑制治疗的Meta分析

目的评价肾移植术后他克莫司（TAC）低剂量对比常规剂量干预的疗效和安全性。方法检索MEDLINE、EMbase、SCI、CBM、Cochrane图书馆,纳入肾移植术后TAC低剂量对比常规剂量免疫抑制治疗的随机对照试验（RCT）。检索时间从各个数据库建库至2009年12月,对纳入研究进行方法学质量评价和Meta分析。结果纳入3个RCT,其中A级研究2个,B级研究1个。分析结果显示：两组急性排斥反应发生率比较,无统计学意义[RR=1.39,95%CI（0.64,3.01）];肾小球滤过率、受者/移植物生存率和纳入分析的安全性指标差异均无统计学意义。结论基于当前临床证据,肾移植术后TAC低剂量与常规剂量干预相比,近期疗效和安全性相似;远期结果尚需进一步研究探讨。     

Prevention trumps treatment of antibody-mediated transplant rejection

Belying the spectacular success of solid organ transplantation and improvements in immunosuppressive therapy is the reality that long-term graft survival rates remain relatively unchanged, in large part due to chronic and insidious alloantibody-mediated graft injury. Half of heart transplant recipients develop chronic rejection within 10 years — a daunting statistic, particularly for young patients expecting to achieve longevity by enduring the rigors of a transplant. The current immunosuppressive pharmacopeia is relatively ineffective in preventing late alloantibody-associated chronic rejection. In this issue of the JCI, Kelishadi et al. report that preemptive deletion of B cells prior to heart transplantation in cynomolgus monkeys, in addition to conventional posttransplant immunosuppressive therapy with cyclosporine, markedly attenuated not only acute graft rejection but also alloantibody elaboration and chronic graft rejection. The success of this preemptive strike implies a central role for B cells in graft rejection, and this approach may help to delay or prevent chronic rejection after solid organ transplantation.     

Immunosuppressive therapy in renal transplantation

Despite advances in organ procurement and surgical techniques, immunosuppressant therapy continues to present a challenge to graft survival in renal transplantation. It also challenges nurses to give the best care possible. In order to do this, nurses must understand how the immune system functions. They must be able to apply this knowledge to the actions of the immunosuppressant agents their parents are receiving. Immunosuppressant therapy is two-fold. First, it is used to prevent rejection and maintain the function of the graft. Its second use is to reverse acute rejection. The major drugs used in maintenance therapy are the corticosteroids, azathioprine, and cyclosporine. The drugs used in acute rejection are antilymphocyte sera, high-dose corticosteroids, and OKT3. These drugs place the patient at risk for a myriad of serious side effects. By being aware of these side effects, the nurse is able to detect their early signs and symptoms and intervene appropriately.     

肾移植后不同免疫抑制剂抗排斥反应的临床应用及不良反应

背景:如何利用免疫抑制剂之间的协同作用,发挥最佳疗效是肾移植后抗排斥反应的关键所在,如何做到个体化用药,提高疗效避免不良反应的发生显得尤为重要。目的:评价不同免疫抑制剂对肾移植受者和移植肾存活的影响,以便更好地避免药物不良反应。方法:应用计算机检索1999-01/2009-10CNKI数据库相关文献,检索词为"免疫抑制剂,肾移植,排斥反应"。选择文章内容与肾移植免疫抑制剂有关者,同一领域文献则选择近期发表或发表在权威杂志文章,入选25篇文献进行综述。结果与结论:任何一种免疫抑制剂在发挥免疫抑制作用时都会伴有一定毒副作用,临床上应尽量避免不良反应发生。联合用药抗排斥反应已达成共识,事实证明无论采用何种联合方式,均有单一用药无可替代的优势。如何利用免疫抑制药之间的协同作用,发挥最佳疗效是临床关键所在,医生应严密监测患者血药浓度,做到个体化用药,尽可能降低肾移植后排斥反应发生率。     

肾移植术后低剂量与常规剂量环孢素A比较进行免疫抑制治疗有效性与安全性的Meta分析

目的系统评价肾移植术后环孢素A低剂量与常规剂量比较的免疫抑制效果和安全性。方法计算机检索MEDLINE、EMbase、SCI、CBM、Cochrane图书馆检索时间均从建库至2009年12月,纳入肾移植术后环孢素A低剂量与常规剂量比较进行免疫抑制治疗的随机对照试验（RCT）。在评价纳入研究的方法学质量和提取有效数据后,采用RevMan5.0进行Meta分析。结果共纳入6个RCT,包括1551例患者,质量评价结果显示4个研究为A级、2个为B级。Meta分析结果显示：随访6个月及12个月两组急性排斥反应发生率[RR=1.07,95%CI（0.69,1.65）;RR=1.06,95%CI（0.71,1.57）]、受者病死率[RR=0.64,95%CI（0.20,2.03）;RR=0.61,95%CI（0.30,1.24）];以及移植物丢失率[RR=0.72,95%CI（0.38,1.36）;RR=0.82,95%CI（0.54,1.25）]差异均无统计学意义,肾脏功能及纳入分析的安全性指标差异均无统计学意义。结论基于当前临床证据,肾移植术后CsA低剂量与常规剂量相比,近期疗效和安全性相似;远期结果有待进一步研究探讨。     

Preemptive CD20+ B cell depletion attenuates cardiac allograft vasculopathy in cyclosporine-treated monkeys

Chronic rejection currently limits the long-term efficacy of clinical transplantation. Although B cells have recently been shown to play a pivotal role in the induction of alloimmunity and are being targeted in other transplant contexts, the efficacy of preemptive B cell depletion to modulate alloimmunity or attenuate cardiac allograft vasculopathy (CAV) (classic chronic rejection lesions found in transplanted hearts) in a translational model has not previously been described. We report here that the CD20-specific antibody (αCD20) rituximab depleted CD20⁺ B cells in peripheral blood, secondary lymphoid organs, and the graft in cynomolgus monkey recipients of heterotopic cardiac allografts. Furthermore, CD20⁺ B cell depletion therapy combined with the calcineurin inhibitor cyclosporine A (CsA) prolonged median primary graft survival relative to treatment with αCD20 or CsA alone. In animals treated with both αCD20 and CsA that achieved efficient B cell depletion, alloantibody production was substantially inhibited and the CAV severity score was markedly reduced. We conclude therefore that efficient preemptive depletion of CD20⁺ B cells is effective in a preclinical model to modulate pathogenic alloimmunity and to attenuate chronic rejection when used in conjunction with a conventional clinical immunosuppressant. This study suggests that use of this treatment combination may improve the efficacy of transplantation in the clinic.     

Rescue therapy with tacrolimus and mycophenolate mofetil does not prevent deterioration of graft function in C4d-positive chronic allograft nephropathy

BACKGROUND: Humoral alloresponses may contribute to chronic allograft nephropathy (CAN) in a subset of kidney transplant recipients. For chronic humoral rejection, the efficacy of rescue therapy with tacrolimus and mycophenolate mofetil has been suggested. METHODS: Eleven recipients with C4d-positive CAN (index biopsy performed after a median of 3 years posttransplantation), who had been on cyclosporine A-based immunosuppression, were converted to tacrolimus, and if not part of basal therapy, to mycophenolate mofetil. We evaluated the effect of this tacrolimus/mycophenolate mofetil rescue therapy on clinical outcomes and on alloantibody formation detected with flow cytometric testing of panel-reactive antibody. RESULTS: Tacrolimus/mycophenolate mofetil rescue therapy (plus anti-rejection treatment in six recipients with additional signs of acute cellular rejection) failed to prevent progressive deterioration of graft function. Four patients returned to dialysis after 4 to 18 months. Serial post-transplant serology detected HLA class I and/or II reactivity in seven recipients. Tacrolimus/mycophenolate mofetil therapy did not affect the time course of alloantibody levels. One patient with C4d-positive transplant glomerulopathy, who did not respond to tacrolimus/mycophenolate mofetil rescue therapy, developed nephrotic-range proteinuria associated with a rapid decline of allograft function. Despite considerable reduction in alloantibody levels and nearly complete clearance of C4d deposits, immunoadsorption failed to prevent graft failure in this patient. CONCLUSION: Our data argue against the efficacy of tacrolimus/mycophenolate mofetil rescue therapy in established C4d-positive chronic allograft dysfunction. Prospective trials are needed to evaluate whether early initiation of this or other antihumoral strategies are capable of effectively preventing alloantibody-mediated chronic graft injury.     

Clinical outcome of living donor kidney transplantation across simultaneous ABO and HLA incompatibility: Single center experience of first ten cases

Background and aimsPreconditioning using different protocols has been tested to prevent antibody mediated rejection (ABMR) individually for ABO and HLA incompatibility. However, simultaneous presence of both barriers is still less explored. The aim of this study was to report outcomes of institutional desensitization protocol in renal transplant recipients with simultaneous ABO and HLA incompatibility.Materials and methodsThis was a retrospective study conducted from October 2015 to December 2018. All patients with a clinical diagnosis of dialysis dependent chronic kidney disease (CKD), who were prospective coexistent HLA and ABO incompatible renal transplant recipients were included in the study. Patients were followed up and graft function and patient survival was assessed at 1 y from the date of transplant.ResultsMedian and mode baseline anti-A titers were 64, while median and mode baseline anti-B titers were 256. All recipients were discharged by tenth postoperative day. None of the patients had any bleeding complications. Post transplant infection rate was found to be 20 %. A total of 54 therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) procedures were performed before transplant and 8 were performed after transplant. Graft survival and patient survival was 100 % at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months. Range and mean follow-up period was 15–42 months and 23 months respectively. Mean glomerular filtration rate (GFR) at 1 y using the CKD-EPI equation was 85.25 ± 13.76 mL/min. Biopsy proven ABMR was observed in one case only which was managed with TPE and immunosuppression.ConclusionSimultaneous ABO and HLA incompatibility in renal transplant recipients can be managed successfully with adequate preconditioning and careful monitoring.     

Gazing into a crystal ball to predict kidney transplant outcome

Kidney transplantation is the optimal therapy for end-stage kidney disease but requires lifelong immunosuppression. Despite improvements in immunosuppression regimens that have reduced rates of acute transplant rejection, long-term allograft survival remains suboptimal. More than 50% of transplanted kidneys from deceased donors fail within 10 years. In order to improve long-term outcomes, physicians need to better understand mechanisms underlying transplant rejection and tolerance in humans. They also need biomarkers that differentiate patients likely to maintain excellent and stable allograft function from recipients at risk of losing their transplants. By studying kidney transplant recipients at high risk for graft loss and rare, spontaneously tolerant kidney transplant recipients, researchers reporting in 3 papers in this issue of the JCI shed new light on these topics.     

输注同基因骨髓间充质干细胞联合脾组织移植诱导肝移植大鼠的免疫耐受

背景:有研究显示在免疫抑制剂的作用下,同种脾脏细胞移植可诱导免疫耐受,使移植物长期存活.另有研究还显示异种骨髓间充质干细胞移植可延长移植肝存活时间.目的:观察输注与受体同基因骨髓间充质干细胞联合脾组织移植对诱导大鼠肝移植后免疫耐受的作用.方法:将受体Lewis大鼠以数字表法随机分为4组:急性排斥组行DA-Lewis大鼠原位肝移植;环孢素A组行DA-Lewis大鼠原位肝移植后灌胃给予环孢素A;干细胞组行DA-Lewis大鼠原位肝移植,同期输注异体Lewis大鼠骨髓间充质干细胞;脾组织移植组在干细胞移植组的基础上同期移植DA大鼠脾组织.观察各组生存期,肝功能情况,血清细胞因子水平,嵌合体的形成情况及肝脏病理变化.结果与结论:与其他各组相比,脾组织移植组大鼠存活时间明显延长,术后血清丙氨酸氨基转移酶、天冬氨酸氨基转移酶、总胆红索、白细胞介素2、干扰素Y水平明显降低(P<0.05),白细胞介素6、白细胞介素10明显升高(P<0.05),30 d后受体脾脏中供体阳性细胞明显升高(P<0.05).肝脏病理显示,环孢素A组和于细胞组移植肝仅呈急性轻度排斥反应,急性排斥组呈急性重度排斥反应,脾组织移植组未见明显排斥反应.说明大鼠肝脏、脾组织移植后输注同基因骨髓间充质干细胞町减轻移植肝的排斥作用,甚至诱导免疫耐受.     

Long-term results following kidney transplantation. An empirical analysis of 467 allogeneic kidney transplants concerning the effect of clinical and immunological variables on graft function

In a homogeneous group of 467 cadaver kidney transplants performed within one single center between 1979 and 1987, we analysed the influence of main risk factors on long-term survival up to 72 months. Calculating survival rates by Kaplan-Meier actuarial methods the overall graft survival exceeded 71%. The corresponding patient survival was higher than 90%. A good HLA-A-B and DR match was of significant positive influence. Patients who received cyclosporine had a significant better outcome compared to conventional immunosuppressive therapy. A marked advantage was demonstrated for such variables as number of pretransplant blood transfusions, number of rejection episodes, preservation time and renal function as measured by plasma creatinine. Independently age was a main risk factor for curtailed graft survival. Although immunological factors accounted for more than 45% of transplant loss we found a surprisingly high percentage of infections (36%). Vascular problems or technical failure were below 10%. We conclude that a profound clinical examination in the pretransplant period is of high value and remains necessary to identify high risk patients in the long range.     

Posttransplantation diabetes: a systematic review of the literature

OBJECTIVES: To systematically review the incidence of posttransplantation diabetes (PTD), risk factors for its development, prognostic implications, and optimal management. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We searched databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, the Cochrane Library, and others) from inception to September 2000, reviewed bibliographies in reports retrieved, contacted transplantation experts, and reviewed specialty journals. Two reviewers independently determined report inclusion (original studies, in all languages, of PTD in adults with no history of diabetes before transplantation), assessed study methods, and extracted data using a standardized form. Meta-regression was used to explain between-study differences in incidence. RESULTS: Nineteen studies with 3,611 patients were included. The 12-month cumulative incidence of PTD is lower (<10% in most studies) than it was 3 decades ago. The type of immunosuppression explained 74% of the variability in incidence (P = 0.0004). Risk factors were patient age, nonwhite ethnicity, glucocorticoid treatment for rejection, and immunosuppression with high-dose cyclosporine and tacrolimus. PTD was associated with decreased graft and patient survival in earlier studies; later studies showed improved outcomes. Randomized trials of treatment regimens have not been conducted. CONCLUSIONS: Physicians should consider modification of immunosuppressive regimens to decrease the risk of PTD in high-risk transplant recipients. Randomized trials are needed to evaluate the use of oral glucose-lowering agents in transplant recipients, paying particular attention to interactions with immunosuppressive drugs.     

移植肾慢性排斥的SonoVue超声造影临床研究

目的观测移植肾慢性排斥的SonoVue超声造影特征,探讨移植肾慢性排斥的SonoVue超声造影诊断指标。方法同种异体移植肾患者36例（功能正常30例,慢性排斥6例）;选用仪器为Siemens公司Sequoia512彩色多普勒超声诊断仪,配备对比脉冲序列造影成像软件;造影剂为SonoVue,剂量选择为0.6-1.0ml;常规超声检查结束后进行超声造影,实时存储图像,回放分析,观测肾实质微循环灌注情况。结果整个造影过程,功能正常移植肾实质呈均匀性增强,包膜下整个肾脏切面被造影剂强回声均匀充填。移植肾发生慢性排斥时,与功能正常移植肾比较,皮质达峰时间延迟,皮质从开始增强到达峰所需时间延长,整个移植肾切面达峰时间延迟;肾脏的增强强度明显不均匀,可见散在的、大小不等、边界不清的低增强区,分布于皮质、髓质及肾窦。结论利用SonoVue进行移植肾的超声造影成像,可以检测出慢性排斥时微循环血流灌注的改变。     

Tacrolimus: immunosuppression following liver and kidney transplant

Advances in transplantation have been impressive since the introduction of cyclosporin, however, there is still considerable debate on the most suitable immunosuppressant regimen. Tacrolimus, a new macrolide immunosuppressant, was marketed in the U. K. in 1994. Open studies have demonstrated its equal efficacy to cyclosporin in terms of patient and graft survival rates when used for primary immunosuppression following both liver and kidney transplantations. Tacrolimus also provides a valuable alternative for patients experiencing rejection in whom re-transplantation is often the only alternative. Unfortunately, in the studies to date, tacrolimus use was associated with increased nephrotoxicity and neurotoxicity compared to cyclosporin. Further trials are therefore required to define tacrolimus' true value in this complex field.     

Depleting antibody induction in simultaneous pancreas-kidney transplantation: a prospective single-center comparison of alemtuzumab versus rabbit anti-thymocyte globulin

Background: The study purpose was to analyze midterm outcomes in a prospective trial of alemtuzumab (Alem) versus rabbit anti-thymocyte globulin (rATG) induction in simultaneous pancreas-kidney transplantation (SPKT).

Methods: From February 2005 to October 2008, 46 SPKTs (45 portal-enteric drainage) were prospectively randomized as part of a larger kidney transplant study to receive either single-dose Alem (30 mg intraoperatively) or multiple-dose rATG antibody induction (starting intraoperatively, minimum three doses administered) with tacrolimus/mycophenolate ± steroids.

Results: Of 222 kidney transplant patients enrolled in the study, 46 received SPKTs; 28 (61%) received Alem and 18 (39%) rATG induction. Follow-up ranged from 67 to 111 months (mean 80 months). There were no significant differences between the two groups in 5 years actual patient (86% Alem vs 89% rATG), kidney (82% Alem vs 61% rATG, p = 0.17) or pancreas (68% Alem vs 56% rATG) graft survival rates. Five years death-censored kidney (92% Alem vs 69% rATG, p = 0.09) and pancreas (76% Alem vs 56% rATG, p = 0.198) graft survival rates were slightly higher in patients receiving Alem. Acute rejection (21% Alem vs 44% rATG, p = 0.12) and major infection (39% Alem vs 67% rATG, p = 0.13) rates were slightly lower in the Alem group; cytomegalovirus infections were significantly lower (0 Alem vs 17% rATG, p = 0.05). The incidence of late acute rejection was low in both groups. There were no differences in early pancreas thrombosis (3.6% Alem vs 11% rATG), postoperative bleeding (11% Alem vs 0 rATG), other surgical complications, readmissions or freedom from steroids between groups. In patients with functioning grafts, 5 years mean serum creatinine (1.4 Alem vs 1.6 mg/dl rATG), calculated abbreviated modification of diet in renal disease glomerular filtration rate (55 Alem vs 52 ml/min/1.73 m² rATG), hemoglobin A1c (both 5.4%) and C-peptide (2.6 Alem vs 2.3 ng/ml rATG) levels were similar.

Conclusions: Single-dose Alem and multiple-dose rATG induction provide similar midterm patient survival and graft functional outcomes with no major differences in morbidity or resource utilization.     

Neuromuscular electrical stimulation to improve gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy: a meta-analysis

ObjectiveTo systematically review the effectiveness of neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) as an adjuvant therapy to improve gross motor function in children with spastic cerebral palsy.MethodsMEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane CENTRAL, PEDro and Scopus were searched. We included randomized controlled trials examining the effects of NMES combined with other therapies on gross motor function as assessed by the Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM) and its functional dimensions. Two reviewers independently screened, extracted data, assessed the risk of bias (PEDro) and quality of the evidence (GRADE).ResultsSix randomized controlled trials (pooled n = 174) were included in the meta-analysis. NMES combined with other therapies presented medium effect size to improve gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy in comparison with conventional physical therapy or neurodevelopmental therapy. Our sensitivity analysis showed that NMES combined with other therapies was effective to improve GMFM-sitting and standing dimensions but not GMFM-walking dimension.ConclusionLow-quality evidence suggests that NMES may be used as adjuvant therapy to improve sitting and standing dimensions of GMFM in children with spastic cerebral palsy.     

肾移植后急性排异反应12例

背景：同种异体肾移植后发生的急性排斥反应是移植肾功能减退和最终移植肾丧失的最主要原因之一。有效预防和早期发现与治疗急性排异反应是关系到肾脏移植患者能否长期存活的重要问题。目的：总结肾移植后1个月内急性排异反应患者治疗过程中免疫抑制剂的应用体会。方法：选择首次肾移植患者12例,移植后采用霉酚酸酯＋环孢素A＋甲泼尼龙三联预防排异反应。当肾移植后3～30d内出现尿量减少、移植肾区胀痛不适、血肌酐升高、尿蛋白增加等不同临床表现,确诊为肾移植后急性排斥反应时,先选用甲强龙500mg/d静脉滴注,连续3d。然后改甲泼尼龙24mg口服1次/d,每5～7d递减4mg,至8mg/d维持。结果与结论：12例患者成功逆转,其中6例甲强龙冲击疗法成功;不能逆转者选用抗胸腺细胞球蛋白或CD3治疗。4例经抗胸腺细胞球蛋白治疗患者中1例8h内尿量迅速增加,2例24h内尿量迅速增加,1例72h后尿量迅速增加;1例选用CD3治疗48h内尿量迅速增加;1例将环孢素转换为他克莫司治疗,同时服用霉酚酸酯胶囊和甲泼尼龙片。经以上治疗12例患者肾功能逐渐恢复。提示肾移植后早期发现、早期诊断、及时治疗是急性排异反应成功逆转的关键。     

46例移植肾切除回顾性分析

目的:探讨移植肾切除的原因和手术安全性。方法:回顾分析复旦大学附属中山医院25年来626例肾移植患者中46例移植肾切除的原因和并发症。结果:切除的46例移植肾中急性排斥反应20例(45.20%),慢性排斥反应16例(34.78%),加速排异2例,动脉栓塞1例,感染4例,肾破裂2例和肾动脉破裂1例。感染和出血为术后最多见的并发症,共9例(19.56%),死亡2例(4.34%)。环孢素A(CsA)使用后移植肾切除率7.72%,与CsA使用前的27.78%相比移植肾切除率明显减少(P<0.01)。结论:移植肾切除的主要原因是急慢、性排斥反应。CsA的使用是移植肾切除减少的原因之一。移植肾切除手术风险大,并发症多,手术前后合理的处理可增加手术安全性。     

Photopheresis therapy for problematic renal allograft rejection

Background: Photopheresis is an immunomodulatory therapy for the treatment of T cell‐mediated disorders. It has been used for rejection prophylaxis in cardiac transplantation, adjuvant treatment of bronchiolitis obliterans in lung transplantation, treatment of graft verse host disease, and in a small number of cases, for treatment of acute rejection in renal transplantation. Little is known of long‐term outcomes following the use of photopheresis in solid organ transplantation. Methods: We report prospective follow‐up of our consecutive experience of the use of photopheresis as adjuvant/salvage therapy for problematic rejection in patients undergoing renal transplantation. Transplant graft survival, infective and malignant outcomes were reported. Results: A cohort of 10 renal transplants recipients received photopheresis therapy for therapy‐resistant rejection. Conventional therapy included an average of 6.2 g pulse methyl‐prednisolone and 17.1 days antilymphocyte therapy. The cohort received additional photopheresis therapy when the unresponsive nature of their rejections raised concerns of graft loss. Median follow‐up censored for patient loss was 66.7 months following photopheresis commencement. Rejection resolved in association with photopheresis use in all 10 patients. Six patients continued to have stable graft function (median serum creatinine: 191.5 μmol/L) at a median follow‐up of 71.0 months. There has been one patient death from sepsis and two from malignancy with functioning grafts while one graft has been lost to disease recurrence. Conclusion: Photopheresis may have a role as an adjuvant or salvage antirejection therapy in solid organ transplantation. Furthermore, evaluation in randomized controlled clinical trials is required to evaluate its potential. J. Clin. Apheresis, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

A review on comparing two commonly used rabbit anti-thymocyte globulins as induction therapy in solid organ transplantation

Introduction: Two rabbit anti-thymocyte globulins (ATGs) (Thymoglobulin? and ATG-Fresenius (ATG-F)?) have been used commonly for induction immunosuppression and treatment of acute rejection in solid organ transplantation. Therefore, literature review on comparative efficacy and side-effect profile of them would be of clinical interest.

Areas covered: This review evaluated all comparative studies in English language, focusing on the solid organ transplant patients who received Thymoglobulin or ATG-F as induction therapy. This review concluded that compared to ATG-F, Thymoglobulin possibly provides better protection against acute rejection and improves patient and graft survival but may result in more cytomegalovirus infection and post-transplant malignancy. Thymoglobulin produced more leukocyte depletion with a greater delay to recover, while ATG-F had more reduction effects on platelet and erythrocyte counts with an increased need to erythropoiesis-stimulating agent.

Expert opinion: The benefits of induction therapy with ATGs must be weighed against the costs and post-transplant complications. It is suggest that there is no substantial clinical difference between these two rabbit ATGs and each may be considered as induction therapy for solid organ transplantation based on availability and drug cost. Of special importance is adding antiviral therapy to the treatment regimen of patients who receive ATGs as induction therapy.