G蛋白偶联受体激酶活性调控与细胞炎性损伤

G蛋白偶联受体激酶 (Gprotein coupledreceptorki nases,GRKs)不仅调节G蛋白偶联受体 (GPCR)磷酸化、介导受体脱敏 ,使信号效应降低或消失 ,而且也调节G蛋白和靶细胞骨架 ,同时它还受到蛋白激酶A(PKA)、蛋白激酶C(PKC)、肌动蛋白和细胞内第二信使钙离子等调节。组织细胞表面存在多种GPCR如血小板活化因子 (PAF)受体、组胺受体、凝血酶受体等 ,介导炎性介质所致细胞损伤的信号转导作用。GRKs磷酸化GPCR ,在炎症诱导细胞损伤过程中起一定调控作用     

β-arrestins介导的信号通路在恶性肿瘤病理过程中的作用

β-arrestins是介导受体脱敏的重要的蛋白质家族,在G蛋白偶联受体的脱敏、内化和复敏中都有重要的作用。作为一类多功能的蛋白,β-arrestins对绝大多数由G蛋白偶联受体介导的信号通路有调节作用,并且参与调节一些非七次跨膜受体的信号转导。在多种恶性肿瘤中,β-arrestins通过调节G蛋白偶联受体或其他一些信号转导途径影响肿瘤细胞的增殖、侵袭和转移过程,参与了恶性肿瘤的病理过程。该文就β-arrestins在恶性肿瘤发生发展过程中所起到的作用及目前的研究状况作一综述。     

调节类风湿关节炎滑膜细胞基质金属蛋白酶表达的信号转导和相应的药物作用靶点

影响类风湿关节炎 (rheumatoidarthritis,RA)滑膜细胞基质金属蛋白酶表达的胞外信号包括T淋巴细胞、细胞因子、生长因子、干扰素和神经肽等,它们引起的信号在胞内主要依赖G蛋白偶联跨膜受体介导的途径和丝裂原激活的蛋白激酶途径转导。作用于这些信号或其转导过程的药物正成为治疗RA、预防RA关节破坏的新策略之一。     

M受体-G蛋白信号转导途径研究进展

毒蕈碱乙酰胆碱受体(mAChR)是G蛋白偶联受体超家族中的一员,具有该家族特征性的结构和信号转导方式。GTP结合蛋白(G protein)是一类具有GTP酶活性的蛋白质,由α、β和γ三个亚基构成。mAChR可以与G蛋白偶联,引起GTP与α亚基结合,导致Gα与Gβγ分离。近年来发现,不但Gα-GTP可以调节效应分子,Gβγ也可以调节许多效应分子如腺苷酸环化酶、磷脂酶C、K 通道、Ca2 通道、MAPK和受体激酶等,介导一系列的生物学效应,在信号转导过程中发挥重要的作用。     

以腺苷及其受体信号为靶点的类风湿关节炎疾病和治疗研究进展

类风湿关节炎(RA)是一种慢性自身免疫疾病,目前其发病机制尚未明确,也没有特效药物。新型有效免疫调节药物的发现对RA的有效治疗至关重要。腺苷是一种嘌呤核苷,也是一类重要的免疫调节信号分子,与细胞膜表面的腺苷受体(ARs)结合,ARs为G蛋白偶联腺苷受体有四种亚型,包括A_1AR、A_(2A)AR、A_(2B)AR、A_3AR。被活化的ARs调控促炎细胞因子及抗炎细胞因子释放,从而调节多种免疫细胞功能,参与RA的发生、发展,是RA治疗的潜在靶点。本文围绕腺苷及其受体各亚型在RA发生、发展中作用的研究新进展及针对调节腺苷及受体功能的药物研发新动态进行综述。     

β-抑制蛋白在AT_1受体信号通路中的作用及意义

血管紧张素Ⅱ(AngⅡ)是肾素-血管紧张素系统的重要活性物质,广泛参与心血管活动的调节。AngⅡ通过与其受体结合,诱导激活复杂的胞内信号通路,是其参与多种病理生理过程的基础。β-抑制蛋白(β-arrestins)是一类负反馈调节G蛋白偶联受体的多功能蛋白,广泛存在心血管系统,是近期的研究热点。该文主要综述β-抑制蛋白在AngⅡ诱导的AngⅡ一型受体(AT1受体)信号通路中的作用及意义。     

KGM组方抗炎抗过敏药效评价及作用机制的网络药理学预测

目的 评价KGM组方的抗炎抗过敏药效,并对其潜在的作用机制进行预测。方法 利用透明质酸酶活性抑制试验和二甲苯致小鼠耳肿胀模型试验评价KGM的抗炎抗过敏作用,运用网络药理学预测其起效机制。结果 KGM对透明质酸酶的抑制率为41%,对小鼠耳肿胀抑制率约为44%,表明其具有一定的抗炎抗过敏作用。网络药理学预测结果显示,KGM主要组成成分作用于炎症、过敏及免疫相关靶点209个;绘制成分-靶点-疾病相互作用网络图并结合GO与KEGG富集分析发现,GBA、AKR1B1、CASP3、VDR、CA2、CA1、CA12、CA9、ACE、FUCA1、MGAM与SI等是KGM的主要作用靶点,涉及的细胞功能主要包括G蛋白偶联受体信号通路调节、分泌调节、离子输运调节等;涉及的通路主要包括G蛋白偶联受体信号通路、氮代谢、钙离子通道、淀粉和蔗糖代谢、cAMP信号通路等。结论 KGM具有一定的抗炎抗过敏作用,其机制可能与调控G蛋白偶联受体信号通路、钙离子通道、cAMP信号通路等有关。     

毒蕈碱型M5受体亚型及生物学特性

M5是最后一个被克隆出的乙酰胆碱毒蕈碱型受体亚型,具有G蛋白偶联受体家族的基本结构特征, 其信号转导方式既可以与G蛋白偶联,激活多种效应酶 (腺苷酸环化酶、磷脂酶C、磷脂酶A2 )产生相应的生物学效应,又可作用于离子通道来调节细胞间的信号传递。M5生理作用主要与调节中枢NO的生成和DA的释放有关,可能为药物滥用成瘾、DA系统功能障碍性疾病、阿尔采末病、脑缺血等的药物治疗提供一个新靶标。     

1-磷酸鞘氨醇及受体对自身免疫性疾病血管新生的影响

1-磷酸鞘氨醇(sphingosine-1-phosphate,S1P)是细胞膜鞘磷脂代谢过程产生的一类信号分子,在免疫系统中,与细胞膜表面的G蛋白偶联受体S1P受体(S1P receptors,S1PRs)结合,通过相关炎症信号通路,影响新生血管的形成。该文简述S1P及其受体通过细胞内信号转导对类风湿关节炎、多发性硬化症、结肠炎、系统性红斑狼疮等自身免疫性疾病微血管生成的影响,提出了S1P及其受体可能是治疗自身免疫性疾病血管炎症新的靶点。     

G protein coupled receptors signaling pathways implicate in inflammatory and immune response of rheumatoid arthritis

G protein coupled receptors(GPCRs)are transmembrane receptor proteins,which allow signals to transfer across membrane.GPCRs include a large number of receptors,different receptors mediated different signaling pathways of GPCRs-adenylyl cyclase(AC)-cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate(c AMP),including β2 adrenergic receptors(β2-ARs)-AC-c AMP signaling pathways,E-prostanoid2/4(EP2/4)-AC-cA MP signaling pathways.Regulatory proteins,such as G protein coupled receptor kinases(GRKs)andβ-arrestins,play important modulatory roles in GPCRs signaling pathway.GPCRs signaling pathway and regulatory proteins implicate the pathogenesis process of inflammatory and immune response.Rheumatoid arthritis(RA)is an autoimmune disease characterized by synovitis and accompanied with inflammatory and abnormal immune response.This article review the advances on GPCRs signaling pathway implicating in the inflammatory and immune response of RA.     

Signal transduction pathways of G protein-coupled receptors and their cross-talk with receptor tyrosine kinases: lessons from bradykinin signaling

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent a major class of drug targets. Recent investigation of GPCR signaling has revealed interesting novel features of their signal transduction pathways which may be of great relevance to drug application and the development of novel drugs. Firstly, a single class of GPCRs such as the bradykinin type 2 receptor (B2R) may couple to different classes of G proteins in a cell-specific and time-dependent manner, resulting in simultaneous or consecutive initiation of different signaling chains. Secondly, the different signaling pathways emanating from one or several GPCRs exhibit extensive cross-talk, resulting in positive or negative signal modulation. Thirdly, GPCRs including B2R have the capacity for generation of mitogenic signals. GPCR-induced mitogenic signaling involves activation of the p44/p42 "mitogen activated protein kinases" (MAPK) and frequently "transactivation" of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), an unrelated class of receptors for mitogenic polypeptides, via currently only partly understood pathways. Cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases and protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) which regulate RTK signaling are likely mediators of RTK transactivation in response to GPCRs. Finally, GPCR signaling is the subject of regulation by RTKs and other tyrosine kinases, including tyrosine phosphorylation of GPCRs itself, of G proteins, and of downstream molecules such as members of the protein kinase C family. In conclusion, known agonists of GPCRs are likely to have unexpected effects on RTK pathways and activators of signal-mediating enzymes previously thought to be exclusively linked to RTK activity such as tyrosine kinases or PTPs may be of much interest for modulating GPCR-mediated biological responses.     

Non-invasive optical biosensor for assaying endogenous G protein-coupled receptors in adherent cells

INTRODUCTION: Screening drugs against G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) - the single largest family of drug targets in the human genome - is still a major effort in pharmaceutical and biotech industries. Conventional cell-based assays generally measure a single cellular event, such as the generation of a second messenger or the relocation of a specific protein target. However, manipulation or engineering of cells is often a prerequisite for these technologies to achieve desired sensitivities. The present study is focused on the use of non-invasive and manipulation-free optical biosensors for assaying endogenous GPCRs in adherent cells. METHODS: Resonant waveguide grating (RWG) biosensor was applied to manifest ligand-induced dynamic mass redistribution (DMR) within the bottom portion of adherent cell layer. The DMR signatures mediated through the activation of several endogenous GPCRs in cells were characterized. Endogenous receptor panning was examined at cell system level by using a panel of agonists known to activate many GPCRs, and also at family receptor level by determining the efficacies of a set of family-specific agonists. RESULTS: Three major types of optical signatures were identified; each was correlated with the activation of a class of GPCRs, depending on the G protein with which the receptor is coupled (i.e., G(q), G(s) and G(i)). The characteristics of DMR signals, mostly the amplitude and kinetics of a DMR event, were dependent on the doses of agonists and the expression levels of endogenous receptors. All three classes of endogenous receptors were found in human epidermoid carcinoma A431 cells. Interestingly, the dose-dependent switching from one type of DMR signal to another was observed for several GPCR agonists examined. A small panel of P2Y receptor agonists exhibited distinct efficacies in three cell lines examined. DISCUSSIONS: The RWG biosensors were applicable to study the activation of endogenous GPCRs. Like second messengers or gene expression, the DMR signals obtained could be considered as novel and quantifiable physiological responses of living cells mediated through GPCRs and used for studying receptor biology.     

Opioid control of MAP kinase cascade

Activation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) may result in phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK 1/2). The signaling pathway involves ectodomain shedding, generating epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like ligands, which in turn stimulate the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) via EGF receptors. The present study investigates into the control of MAPKs by opioidergic GPCRs in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK 293). Experiments were conducted with cells expressing opioid receptors, G protein-coupled receptor kinases, and ERKs. The outcome of our studies let us suggest that EGF-like ligands released by opioid receptor stimulation utilize different EGF receptors to phosphorylate ERKs, while EGF utilizes type 1 receptors. Differences between multiple opioid receptors are apparent with respect to the activation of ERKs. EGF rapidly triggers internalization of the fluorescent EGF receptor type 1, but we failed to observe any sequestration of this receptor type upon exposure of cells to an opioid, since opioids most likely trigger stimulation of a different EGF receptor type. In conclusion, G protein-coupled opioid receptors control the MAPK cascade in a similar fashion as described for non-opioid GPCRs, although distinct differences exist between μ-, δ- and κ-receptors. EGF-induced ERK activation is mediated by EGF receptor type 1 while opioid receptor activation seems to brings about stimulation via EGF receptor type.     

Domains for activation and inactivation in G protein-coupled receptors – A mutational analysis of constitutive activity of the adenosine A2B receptor

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a major drug target and can be activated by a range of stimuli, from photons to proteins. Most, if not all, GPCRs also display a basal level of biological response in the absence of such a stimulus. This level of so-called constitutive activity results from a delicate energy equilibrium that exists between the active and the inactive state of the receptor and is the first determinant in the GPCR activation mechanism. Here we describe new insights in specific regions of the adenosine A_2B receptor that are essential in activation and inactivation. We developed a new screening method using the MMY24 S. Cerevisiae strain by which we were able to screen for constitutively inactive mutants receptors (CIMs). We applied this screening method on a mutagenic library of the adenosine A_2B receptor, where random mutations were introduced in transmembrane domains four and five (TM4 and TM5) linked by extracellular loop 2 (EL2). The screen resulted in the identification of 22 single and double mutant receptors, all showing a decrease in constitutive activity as well as in agonist potency. By comparing these results with a previous screen of the same mutagenic library for constitutively active mutant receptors (CAMs), we discovered specific regions in this G protein-coupled receptor involved in either inactivation or activation or both. The results suggest the activation mechanism of GPCRs to be much less restricted to sites of high conservation or direct interaction with the ligand or G protein and illustrate how dynamic the activation process of GPCRs is.     

GPCRs: The most promiscuous druggable receptor of the mankind

All physiological events in living organisms originated as specific chemical/biochemical signals on the cell surface and transmitted into the cytoplasm. This signal is translated within milliseconds–hours to a specific and unique order required to maintain optimum performance and homeostasis of living organisms. Examples of daily biological functions include neuronal communication and neurotransmission in the process of learning and memory, secretion (hormones, sweat, and saliva), muscle contraction, cellular growth, differentiation and migration during wound healing, and immunity to fight infections. Among the different transducers for such life-dependent signals is the large family of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). GPCRs constitute roughly 800 genes, corresponding to 2% of the human genome. While GPCRs control a plethora of pathophysiological disorders, only approximately one-third of GPCR families have been deorphanized and characterized. Recent drug data show that around 40% of the recommended drugs available in the market target mainly GPCRs. In this review, we presented how such system signals, either through G protein or via other players, independent of G protein, function within the biological system. We also discussed drugs in the market or clinical trials targeting mainly GPCRs in various diseases, including cancer.     

International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. LXXIX. Cannabinoid receptors and their ligands: beyond CB₁ and CB₂

There are at least two types of cannabinoid receptors (CB(1) and CB(2)). Ligands activating these G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) include the phytocannabinoid Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol, numerous synthetic compounds, and endogenous compounds known as endocannabinoids. Cannabinoid receptor antagonists have also been developed. Some of these ligands activate or block one type of cannabinoid receptor more potently than the other type. This review summarizes current data indicating the extent to which cannabinoid receptor ligands undergo orthosteric or allosteric interactions with non-CB(1), non-CB(2) established GPCRs, deorphanized receptors such as GPR55, ligand-gated ion channels, transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, and other ion channels or peroxisome proliferator-activated nuclear receptors. From these data, it is clear that some ligands that interact similarly with CB(1) and/or CB(2) receptors are likely to display significantly different pharmacological profiles. The review also lists some criteria that any novel "CB(3)" cannabinoid receptor or channel should fulfil and concludes that these criteria are not currently met by any non-CB(1), non-CB(2) pharmacological receptor or channel. However, it does identify certain pharmacological targets that should be investigated further as potential CB(3) receptors or channels. These include TRP vanilloid 1, which possibly functions as an ionotropic cannabinoid receptor under physiological and/or pathological conditions, and some deorphanized GPCRs. Also discussed are 1) the ability of CB(1) receptors to form heteromeric complexes with certain other GPCRs, 2) phylogenetic relationships that exist between CB(1)/CB(2) receptors and other GPCRs, 3) evidence for the existence of several as-yet-uncharacterized non-CB(1), non-CB(2) cannabinoid receptors; and 4) current cannabinoid receptor nomenclature.     

Epidermal growth factor differentially augments G(i)-mediated stimulation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase activity

1. Signaling networks involving different receptor systems allow extracellular signals to be integrated and transformed into various biological activities. In this report, we studied the activity of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) subgroup of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), in response to stimulation by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and co-activation with epithermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). 2. Stimulation of exogenous GPCRs in Cos-7 cells induced JNK activation of different magnitudes depending on their G-protein coupling specificities (G(q)>G(i)>G(s)), and a moderate JNK activation was linked to stimulation of endogenous EGFR by EGF. 3. Co-stimulation with GPCR agonists and EGF resulted in differential augmentation of JNK activities, with G(i)-coupled receptors associated with a synergistic JNK activation upon co-stimulation with EGF, while G(q)- and G(s)-coupled receptors were incapable of triggering this effect. 4. This G(i)/EGF-induced synergistic JNK activation was inhibited by pertussis toxin and AG1478, and may involve Src family tyrosine kinases, PI3 K, Ca(2+)/calmodulin and small GTPases as important intermediates, while Ca(2+) mobilization was triggered by the stimulation of G(q)-coupled receptor or EGF treatment, but not by the G(i)- or G(s)-coupled receptors. 5. Transient expression of Gbetagamma subunits with EGF treatment, or co-activation of exogenous G(i)-coupled receptor with thapsigargin also resulted in a synergistic JNK activation. Activation of G(i)-coupled receptor accompanied with EGF treatment enhanced the expression level and activity of MAPK phosphatase type I, which occurred after the maximal synergistic JNK activation. 6. Our results support a mechanistic model where EGF signaling may differentially regulate the JNK activities triggered by GPCRs of different coupling specificities.     

Computational Advances for the Development of Allosteric Modulators and Bitopic Ligands in G Protein-Coupled Receptors

Allosteric modulators of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which target at allosteric sites, have significant advantages against the corresponding orthosteric compounds including higher selectivity, improved chemical tractability or physicochemical properties, and reduced risk of receptor oversensitization. Bitopic ligands of GPCRs target both orthosteric and allosteric sites. Bitopic ligands can improve binding affinity, enhance subtype selectivity, stabilize receptors, and reduce side effects. Discovering allosteric modulators or bitopic ligands for GPCRs has become an emerging research area, in which the design of allosteric modulators is a key step in the detection of bitopic ligands. Radioligand binding and functional assays ([³⁵S]GTPγS and ERK1/2 phosphorylation) are used to test the effects for potential modulators or bitopic ligands. High-throughput screening (HTS) in combination with disulfide trapping and fragment-based screening are used to aid the discovery of the allosteric modulators or bitopic ligands of GPCRs. When used alone, these methods are costly and can often result in too many potential drug targets, including false positives. Alternatively, low-cost and efficient computational approaches are useful in drug discovery of novel allosteric modulators and bitopic ligands to help refine the number of targets and reduce the false-positive rates. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art computational methods for the discovery of modulators and bitopic ligands. The challenges and opportunities for future drug discovery are also discussed.Key words: allosteric modulators, bitopic ligands, computational approaches, drug discovery, drug target discovery, G protein-coupled receptors     

Domain coupling in GPCRs: the engine for induced conformational changes

Recent solved structures of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) provide insights into variation of the structure and molecular mechanisms of GPCR activation. In this review, we provide evidence for the emerging paradigm of domain coupling facilitated by intrinsic disorder of the ligand-free state in GPCRs. The structure-function and dynamic studies suggest that ligand-bound GPCRs exhibit multiple active conformations in initiating cellular signals. Long-range intramolecular and intermolecular interactions at distant sites on the same receptor are crucial factors that modulate signaling function of GPCRs. Positive or negative coupling between the extracellular, the transmembrane and the intracellular domains facilitates cooperativity of activating 'switches' as requirements for the functional plasticity of GPCRs. Awareness that allosteric ligands robustly affect domain coupling provides a novel mechanistic basis for rational drug development, small molecule antagonism and GPCR regulation by classical as well as nonclassical modes.