颅内压监测在特重型颅脑损伤患者中的临床应用

目的探讨颅内压监测对特重型颅脑损伤后颅内压增高治疗的临床价值。方法选择山东邹平县中医院神经外科在2010年5月~2014年6月期间收治并符合入选标准的56例特重型颅脑损伤患者,均行双侧开颅去骨瓣减压+颅内压监测探头置入术。其中使用脑室型颅内压监测探头者33例(脑室型探头组),使用单纯型颅内压监测探头者23例(单纯型探头组)。两组患者均根据颅内压增高程度给予相应的降颅压治疗,以达到理想的颅内压控制及维持合理的脑灌注压。疗效评定按格拉斯哥预后量表(Glasgow outcome scale,GOS)评分,3~5分为预后良好,GOS评分1~2分为预后差。结果与单纯型探头组相比,脑室型探头组患者的甘露醇用量及使用天数明显减少(P0.005~0.001),植物生存和死亡的比率明显降低(P0.05),差异均有统计学意义。结论对特重型颅脑损伤患者使用脑室型颅内压监测探头比单纯型监测探头更能减少甘露醇的用量及使用时间;并能明显改善患者的预后。     

亚低温治疗重型颅脑损伤伴低颅压病人作用的多中心前瞻性随机对照研究

目前对应用亚低温治疗重型颅脑损伤病人的标准尚未确定。作者曾报道亚低温治疗重型颅脑损伤伴颅内压增高病人的效果良好 ,但对低颅压病人意义不大。本文旨在通过随机对照研究以确定亚低温治疗重型颅脑损伤伴低颅压病人的价值及安全性。研究病例为在日本 11个治疗中心接受治疗的 91例重型颅脑损伤病人 (ＧＣＳ≤ 8)。所有病人入院后均给予气管插管、持续的过度通气、液体支持、颅内压和脑温监测、维持脑灌注压和尿量 ,并用脱水剂、巴比妥酸盐等药物及脑脊液引流、颅内血肿消除术等治疗使颅内压维持在 2 5ｍｍＨｇ以下。然后将病人随机分为两…     

有创颅内压监测和阶梯式方案治疗进展性脑挫裂伤

目的探讨有创颅内压监测进展性脑挫裂伤颅内压变化,及采用阶梯式治疗方案控制颅高压的治疗效果。方法硬膜下或脑室内探头置入颅内,并持续监测颅内压,运用阶梯式治疗方案降低颅内压。结果 21例患者均成功置入颅内压监测探头。9例患者随即转开颅手术;12例采用保守治疗,其中8例在保守治疗过程中ICP持续上升转开颅手术。GOS评分5分13例,4分8例。结论有创颅内压监测能客观、准确和及时反应颅内压变化。阶梯式治疗方案有效降低颅内压,改善预后。     

颅脑损伤患者不同部位颅内压监测与治疗效果的 相关性

目的 探讨颅脑损伤患者不同部位颅内压监测与治疗效果的关系。方法 将82例重型颅脑 损伤患者按照有无颅内压监测分为非监测组和监测组，监测组分为脑室内监测组和脑实质内监测组，观察 不同组别的治疗效果。结果 术后第7天脑室内监测组颅内压低于脑实质内监测组［（10.35±3.32）mmHg 比（13.46±4.71）mmHg；t=4.017，P=0.028］。脑室内监测组甘露醇使用时间（6.05±2.03）d以及剂量 （748.92±126.65）g低于脑实质内监测组［（8.46±2.41）d，（961.72±128.82）g；t=3.011，5.254，P ＜ 0.05］。 术后第7天、第14天脑室内监测组GCS评分［（9.11±2.73），（12.06±2.37）分］高于脑实质内监测组 ［（8.82±2.67），（10.09±2.23）分；t=3.403，4.562；P＜0.05）］。随访患者6个月，其中监测组总有效率（75.86%， 68.97%）均显著高于非监测组（41.67%），差异有统计学意义（χ2=5.432，6.401；P＜ 0.05）；脑室内监测组脑 积水发生率（10.34%）显著低于脑实质内监测组（3.45%）、非监测组（4.17%），差异有统计学意义（χ2=3.709， 4.421；P＜ 0.05）。结论 脑室内颅内压监测能明显降低重型颅脑损伤患者甘露醇使用、较快降低颅内高 压，预后情况良好，并发症少，值得临床应用，脑实质内监测次于脑室内监测。     

颅内压监测、脑灌注压在丘脑出血破入脑室综合治疗中的应用

目的探讨丘脑出血破入脑室、颅内压监测、脑灌注压在丘脑综合治疗中的应用价值。方法对161例丘脑出血破入脑室(监测组)在保证脑灌注压(CPP)9.23~12KPA条件下持续颅内(ICP)及平均动脉压(MAP)监测,并在保持ICP0.8~2KPA情况下,丘脑出血脑室铸型出血行双侧脑室置管外引流并腰穿脑脊液置换术。对98例高血压脑室铸型出血患者(对照组),持续血压监测,控制血压于发病前水平或低于入院水平20%,对比两组治疗效果,同时评价在保证脑灌注压条件下颅内压监测在丘脑出血救治中应用价值。结果监测组死亡率5.6%(9/161)低于对照组死亡率18.3%(18/98)两组比较差异有统计学意义(P0.050)。结论保证脑灌注压、颅内压监测下血压控制可改善丘脑出血患者预后。     

重型颅脑损伤病人进行气管内吸引术:风险及处理对策

气管内吸引术在重型颅脑损伤病人的救治中应用广泛,但是重型颅脑损伤病人进行气管内吸引时,会出现颅内压升高,严重时导致脑灌注压下降,引起脑组织缺血、缺氧,给病人带来风险。而针对性的措施中,使用镇静药物被认为是最好的方法。本文对ETS可能导致病人血压、颅内压、脑灌注压和脑组织氧合情况的紊乱以及临床处理策略,进行综述。     

激光多普勒监测重型颅脑创伤患者脑血流的临床研究

目的探讨重型颅脑创伤患者伤后急性期脑血流变化规律。方法利用激光多普勒脑血流仪(LDF)监测36例重型颅脑创伤患者急性期的局部脑血流(rCBF)及颅内压(ICP),通过观察rCBF的变化趋势及LDF值与脑灌注压(CPP)的相关系数r,分析rCBF的变化及脑血流自动调节功能。结果在监测第一阶段(0-12h)16例(44%)为低灌注;在第二阶段(12-24h)9例(25%)为低灌注;在第三阶段(24h以后)6例(17%)为低灌注。随着时间的推移,局部脑血流灌注量呈逐渐上升趋势。将CPP与LDF值的相关系数r作为评价脑血流自动调节功能的指数,15例(42%)至少出现一次自动调节功能受损,其中GCS 3～5分11例,GCS 6～8分4例。结论重型颅脑创伤患者在伤后急性期多发生低灌注,随着时间的推移,局部脑血流量逐渐上升。患者伤后多发生暂时性的脑血管调节功能受损,特重型颅脑创伤自动调节功能受损的发生率要高于重型颅脑创伤。     

重型颅脑损伤去骨瓣减压术后颅内压升高的亚低温治疗

目的 探讨亚低温治疗对重型颅脑损伤去骨瓣减压术后持续性颅内压升高的效果及安全性。方法 回顾性分析48例重型颅脑损伤去骨瓣减压术后仍存在持续性颅内压升高的临床资料,根据减压术后治疗方法分为亚低温组（22例,进行亚低温治疗）和常温组（26例,维持正常体温）。结果 与术后1 d相比,术后2~4 d,两组颅内压均呈明显下降趋势（P<0.05）,脑灌注压均呈明显增高趋势（P<0.05）,而且亚低温组变化更明显（P<0.05）。亚低温组肺部感染和水电解质紊乱发生率均明显高于常温组（P<0.05）。伤后6个月,亚低温组GOS评分1分2例,2分8例,3分4例,4分2例,5分6例;常温组1分8例,2分10例,3分4例,5分4例;两组预后无统计学差异（P>0.05）。结论 亚低温治疗能有效缓解重型颅脑损伤去骨瓣减压术后颅内压增高。     

脑室外引流术在重型颅脑损伤合并脑疝治疗中的意义

目的 探讨脑室外引流术（EVD）在重型颅脑损伤（TBI）合并脑疝治疗中的意义。方法 回顾性分析2017年1~12月收治的23例重型TBI合并脑疝的临床资料。均先行EVD,随后行颅内血肿清除+去骨瓣减压术。18例行单侧去骨瓣减压术,5例行双侧去骨瓣减压术,4例行颅内压监测。去骨瓣减压术均采用标准大骨瓣减压。结果 住院期间2例（8.7%）减压效果不佳,其中1例为脑肿胀,1例为术后再出血;其余21例减压效果满意。术后3个月,GOS评分5分8例,4分5例,3分3例,2分3例,1分4例。结论 对于重型TBI合并脑疝,EVD的选择需要严格把握适应证;对于有脑肿胀的病人,建议常规应用EVD。     

脑室内颅内压监测在老年颅脑损伤中的意义

目的探讨脑室内置管监测颅内压在老年颅脑损伤救治中的意义。方法对57例老年颅脑损伤患者（重型52例，中型4例，轻型1例）采用脑室内置管监测颅内压，根据监测结果控制颅内压，指导脱水药物应用和开颅手术。结果57例中死亡19例，GCS评分3～5分29例中，死亡13例，死亡率45％；GCS评分6。8分23例，死亡6例，死亡率26％。出院后6个月GOS评分：1分19例，2分1例，3分2例，4分14例，5分21例。结论老年颅脑损伤患者持续有创进行颅内压监测，有助于及时了解颅内压的变化，有利于早期诊断及调整治疗方案，并对判断预后有着重要意义。     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.     

Anticonvulsant Drugs and Cognitive Function: A Review of the Literature

Summary: Alterations of cognitive function are separate from disturbances of behavior seen in association with epilepsy. The nature of the cognitive disability may to a certain extent depend on the seizure type. Partial seizures, mainly derived from a temporal lobe focus, impair memory tasks, while generalized seizures seem to have more effect on attentional abilities. A number of studies, reviewed in this paper, suggest that anticonvulsant drugs further impair cognitive function. Maximal impairments are seen in patients receiving polytherapy: rationalization of polytherapy improves cognitive abilities. Studies in children and adults have allowed differentiation of the effects of various commonly used antiepileptic agents. Maximal cognitive deficits are seen with. phenytoin, while phenobarbital and sodium valproate induce moderate disturbances, and carbamazepine seems relatively free from such toxicity. Further research is needed on the interrelationship between types of seizure disorders, types of anticonvulsant medications, and cognitive function.