心功能减退与缺血性脑卒中的关系

对２１９例缺血性脑卒中与心功能减退间关系进行了年龄分组的对照比较，结果发现，心功能减退与缺血性脑卒中的关系极为密切。冠心病，房颤、高血压性心脏病和瓣膜病变的发生率是随着年龄的逐渐增长而升高（Ｐ＜０．０５～０．０１），且导致缺血性脑卒中的发病率也不断增加。在老年人房颤既是缺血性脑卒中的独立危险因素，又可与其它心脏疾病伴随。冠心病是产生房颤的最常见病因     

同型半胱氨酸与脑卒中的相关性研究

脑卒中是全球范围内致死率、致残率都非常高的疾病,尤其在发展中国家,严重危害国民健康,并为社会经济带来沉重的负担.流行病学显示脑卒中的总体发病趋势为西方多数国家有下降趋势,而东方以我国为代表的人口大国,脑卒中的发病不但没有下降,仍在以8.7％的增长速度逐年上升[1].中美心脑血管危险因素的比较发现,我国在传统危险因素方面发病率较美国低,但平均同型半胱氨酸水平较美国高[2].脑卒中是多种环境及多基因因素决定的疾病,发病机制复杂.近年来,同型半胱氨酸与脑血管病的关系日益受到人们的关注,并被认为是脑卒中新的危险因素[3].本文将近几年同型半胱氨酸与脑卒中的相关性研究现状作一综述.     

脑血管病危险因素研究进展

脑血管病仍是目前引起死亡的第三大疾病,又是致残率最高的疾病。在无有效治愈方法的情况下,采取预防措施,减少脑血管病发生率显得尤为重要。了解并降低脑血管病危险因素是减少脑血管病发病率的重要措施。虽然对于任何一个人,存在一个或几个脑血管病危险因素并不意味着即将发生脑卒中,而不存在危险因素的也并不意味着就不会发生脑卒中,但毫无疑问存在脑血管病危险因素者其脑卒是发生的可能性大大增加。     

中国脑血管病防治指南（节选）

脑血管病的危险因素分为可干预与不可干预两种,年龄和性别是两个不可干预的危险因素。随着年龄的增长,脑卒中的危险性持续增加,55岁以后每10年卒中的危险性增加1倍。世界各国普遍存在性别之间的明显差异,从总体看,卒中的发病率男性高于女性,男女之比约为1.1～1.5∶1。此外,不可干预的危险因素还有种族和家族遗传性。可干预的一些主要危险因素包括:高血压、心脏病、糖尿病、吸烟、酗酒、血脂异常、颈动脉狭窄等。国内外几乎所有研究均证实,高血压是脑出血和脑梗死最重要的危险因素。脑卒中发病率、死亡率的上升与血压升高有着十分密切的关系…     

脑卒中发病年龄变化趋势及青年患者的危险因素分析

目的 调查脑卒中的发病年龄变化趋势,分析青年脑卒中的危险因素.方法 收集2002年1月～2009年12月在我院住院脑卒中患者2632例,调查每例患者性别、发病年龄、脑卒中类型,对其中≤45岁的青年脑卒中患者进行危险因素调查分析,随机抽取同期住院老年脑卒中（≥60岁）患者作为对照,关注性别及是否伴发高血压、高血脂、心脏病、糖尿病、不良生活习惯、肾脏病、及其他少见危险因素.结果 脑卒中发病年龄呈现年轻化的趋势,2006～2009年度脑卒中平均发病年龄66.37岁,比2002～2005年度脑卒中平均发病年龄69.52岁提前了2.15岁,（t=2.76,P〈0.01,统计有显著性差异）.而且≤45青年脑卒中患者的发病比率越来越高,2006～2009年间青年脑卒中的发病比率为4.8%,比2002～2009年间青年脑卒中发病比率3.5%增加了1.3%个百分点,（u=2.65,P〈0.01,统计有显著性差异）.青年脑卒中伴有高血压42.8%（48）、高血脂33.6%（38）、不良生活习惯28.3%（32）、糖尿病15.9%（18）、心脏病14.2（16/113）、肾脏病13.2%（15）、等是本组青年脑卒中患者的危险因素.结论 脑卒中发病年龄呈现年轻化的趋势,高血压、高血脂、不良生活习惯等是本组青年脑卒中患者的主要危险因素.     

上海市浦东新区某社区老年脑卒中高危人群筛查结果分析

目的了解上海市浦东新区三林社区老年脑卒中高危人群危险因素暴露情况及其人群分布特征,为制定老年脑卒中高危人群防治策略提供依据。方法于2015-2017年采取整群抽样方法对浦东新区三林社区65岁及以上常住户籍人口开展现场询问调查和相关的体格检查,进行血脂、空腹血糖、糖化血红蛋白、同型半胱氨酸、心电图检测,以筛查缺血性脑卒中高危人群及其危险因素。结果 2015-2017年筛查居民总数为9195人,筛查出脑卒中高危人群1504人,高危人群比例为16.78%,有短暂性脑缺血发作史或者卒中史535人(5.82%),危险因素≥3项的高危人群969人(10.54%)。1504名高危人群中危险因素暴露率从高到低依次为高血压、超重、高血脂、糖尿病、卒中史、吸烟史、家族史、缺乏运动、房颤。969例危险因素≧3的高危人群中,女性糖尿病、高血脂暴露率高于男性,男性吸烟率、超重高于女性。参加筛查的社区人群中,高Hcy血症的检出率为53.72%。男性检出率为63.8%,女性为45.7%,差异有统计学意义。结论三林地区65岁以上人群高危人群检出率与上海其他地区相似;高血压、超重、高血脂是暴露率最高的三项危险因素。男性和女性某些危险因素暴露情况有差异。高同型半胱氨酸血症在高龄、男性人群检出率高。应结合不同人群的危险因素发生情况实施定期随访管理,以达到预防脑卒中的目的。     

踝臂指数与缺血性脑卒中及其危险因素的关系

目的探讨踝臂指数与缺血性脑卒中及其危险因素的关系。方法以我院神经内科住院的150例缺血性脑卒中患者为研究对象,同时测量计算踝臂指数(ABI),ABI<0.9定义为异常。分析研究对象ABI异常的发生情况及与其相关的脑血管危险因素。结果血脂紊乱史、糖尿病史在ABI正常组和ABI异常组差异有统计学意义,且TG、LDL-C及糖尿病是缺血性脑卒中ABI异常的独立危险因素。结论低踝臂指数增加缺血性脑卒中的风险,踝臂指数可用于评估缺血性脑卒中的患病危险。     

应重视脑卒中的综合预防

脑卒中高居人口死亡原因的第 2位 ,每年新发患者 >15 0万例 ,现有幸存者 >6 0 0万例 ,其中 75 %丧失劳动力 ,4 0 %中度致残 ,是老年人致残和认知障碍的主要原因 ,年直接或间接经济损失高达数百亿元。高血压、心脏病、房颤、糖尿病、高脂血症、无症状颈动脉狭窄以及不良生活方式 ,包括吸烟、酗酒等均为脑卒中的危险因素 ,应针对危险因素予以控制 ,并长期有效坚持 ,大部分脑卒中是可以预防的。1.高血压 :我国高血压超过 1亿人口 ,是脑卒中最常见的可控危险因素。 14项随机对照研究结果表明 ,舒张压降低 5～ 6ｍｍＨｇ可以减少脑卒中发生率的 4…     

脑卒中高危人群认知功能障碍血管性危险因素筛查

目的通过对社区脑卒中高危人群进行认知功能评价,筛查脑卒中高危人群认知功能障碍的血管性危险因素。方法对2012年8-12月在陕西省西安市雁塔区筛查出的541例脑卒中高危人群进行翔实的基线资料采集和血管性危险因素评价,并采用简易智能状态检查量表评价认知功能。单因素和多因素逐步法Logistic回归分析筛查脑卒中高危人群认知功能障碍的血管性危险因素。结果541例脑卒中高危人群中90例(16.64%)符合认知功能障碍标准,单因素和多因素逐步法Logistic回归分析显示,仅糖尿病是脑卒中高危人群认知功能障碍的独立血管性危险因素(OR=1.871,95%CI:1.132~3.151;P=0.015)。结论血管性危险因素可以增加认知功能障碍的发病风险,尤其糖尿病是脑卒中高危人群认知功能障碍的独立危险因素。     

血管性认知障碍的研究进展

近20年来,随着社会的发展和人口的老龄化,脑卒中和痴呆的发病率逐渐增高,伴有血管性因素的认知功能障碍越来越受到大家的重视。笔者就血管性认知功能障碍(vascular cogni-tive impairment,VCI)的概念、意义、流行病学特点、分类、危险因素、病理生理及防治策略等方面综述如下。     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.