六味地黄汤对小鼠皮肤衰老的影响

目的:观察六味地黄汤内服延缓皮肤衰老的作用。方法:昆明种小鼠每d颈背部皮下注射D半乳糖(140mg/kg)制造亚急性衰老模型,同时分别以15g·kg-1·d-1、25g·kg-1·d-1、40g·kg-1·d-1剂量的六味地黄汤灌胃。42d后,测定小鼠背部皮肤组织匀浆中超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSHPX)、丙二醛(MDA)、羟脯氨酸含量及皮肤中成纤维细胞数目。结果:六味地黄汤能明显升高亚急性衰老小鼠皮肤SOD酶和GSHPX酶活力,明显降低MDA含量,增加衰老小鼠皮肤羟脯氨酸含量,提高皮肤成纤维细胞数目。结论:六味地黄汤可有效延缓D半乳糖所致的小鼠皮肤衰老。     

人参皂苷Rb1抗小鼠脑自然衰老及其对mTOR/p70S6K通路的影响

【目的】观察人参皂苷Rb1对小鼠脑组织自然衰老的作用,并探讨mTOR/p70S6K通路在其中的作用。【方法】27只C57/B6雌性小鼠购于中山大学实验动物中心,其中7只3月龄C57/B6雌性小鼠为青年组,20只22月龄C57/B6雌性小鼠为老年组,青年组小鼠予生理盐水(PBS)腹腔注射,老年组小鼠分别予PBS(对照)、低剂量Rb1(10 mg·kg-1·d-1)、高剂量Rb1(20 mg·kg-1·d-1)腹腔注射。6周后处死小鼠,取脑组织匀浆,检测丙二醛(MDA)含量、单胺氧化酶(MAO)活性,western blot技术检测血浆纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂-1(PAI-1)、p-m TOR/mTOR、p-p70S6K/p70S6K蛋白表达情况。【结果】与青年小鼠比较,老年对照组小鼠脑组织中的MDA含量增多,MAO活性增加,PAI-1蛋白表达增多,m TOR蛋白、p70S6K蛋白磷酸化水平增加。与老年对照组比较,注射Rb1的两组小鼠脑组织MAO活性,m TOR蛋白、p70S6K蛋白磷酸化水平均降低;此外,高剂量Rb1组MDA含量、PAI-1蛋白的表达降低。【结论】高剂量(20 mg·kg-1·d-1)人参皂苷Rb1可以减轻小鼠脑自然衰老;人参皂苷Rb1的这一抗衰老作用可能与m TOR/p70S6K通路密切相关。     

玉芝灵口服液抗皮肤衰老的药理实验研究

目的 :观察玉芝灵口服液内服抗皮肤衰老作用。方法 :昆明种小鼠每日颈背部皮下注射D 半乳糖 (1 2 0mg/kg)造成小鼠衰老模型 ,同时灌胃 4 5、9 0、1 8 0g·kg- 1 ·d- 1 玉芝灵口服液 ;45天后 ,测定小鼠背部皮肤组织匀浆中超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化脂质代谢产物丙二醛 (MDA)、脂褐质 (LF)、羟脯氨酸含量及皮肤中成纤维细胞数目。结果 :玉芝灵口服液低、中、高剂量均能明显升高亚急性衰老小鼠皮肤SOD活力 ,使其MDA和LF含量均明显下降 ,增加衰老小鼠皮肤羟脯氨酸含量 ,提高皮肤成纤维细胞数目。结论 :玉芝灵口服液可有效地抵抗D 半乳糖所致的小鼠皮肤衰老     

生脉方主要活性成分配伍对其药代动力学行为的影响

目的:建立液质联用测定大鼠血清中人参皂苷Rg1、人参皂苷Rb1和五味子醇甲的方法,用于研究生脉方中这3种成分配伍前后药动学行为的差异.方法:采用人参皂苷Rg1、人参皂苷Rb1和五味子醇甲3种化合物分别给大鼠单独或同等剂量配伍(100 mg·kg-1)灌胃.血清样品液萃取,LC-MS分析检测.用WinNonLinu6.0,以非房室模型计算药动学参数.结果:配伍给药组与单体给药组相比,人参皂苷Rg1的达峰浓度由(0.476 ±0.238) μg·ml-1上升为(1.946±1.432)μg·ml -1,AUC0-∞由(0.523±0.238)μg·h·ml -1上升为(1.908±1.319) μg·h·ml-1,CL由(226311±96819)ml·h-1·kg-1下降为(90650±73684)ml·h-1·kg-1,Vd由(317110±154009)ml·kg -1下降为(130967±78306)ml· kg-1.人参皂苷Rb1和五味子醇甲的药动学参数无明显变化.结论:配伍给药后,人参皂苷Rg1的生物利用度有显著提高,而人参皂苷Rb1、五味子醇甲的药动行为无明显差异.     

人参皂甙抗皮肤衰老作用实验研究

目的：观察人参皂甙内服抗皮肤衰老作用。方法：昆明种小鼠每日颈背部皮下注注射D－半乳糖（1000mg/kg)造成小鼠衰老模型，同时灌胃人参皂甙100，50mg/(kg.d)，42d后，测定小鼠背部皮肤组织均浆中超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）、过氧化脂质代谢产物丙二醛（MDA）及皮肤羟脯氨酸含量，并测定全血中过氧化氢酶（CAT），谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶（GSH－Px)活性。结果：人参皂甙（100mg/kg.d^-1)使D－半乳糖所致的衰老模型小鼠皮肤中SOD活力，羟脯氨酸含量明显升高，MDA含量显著降低，血中CAT，GSH－Px活力显著升高，差异均有显著性，而人参皂甙（50mg/kg.d^-1)组则上述作用不明显，结论：人参皂甙（100mg/kg.d^-1)灌胃对D－半乳糖所致衰老小鼠皮肤有明显的抗衰老作用。     

螺旋藻多糖对阿尔茨海默病模型小鼠脑线粒体氧化应激保护

目的：探索螺旋藻多糖对D-半乳糖联合亚硝酸钠诱导的阿尔茨海默病(AD)模型小鼠脑线粒体损伤的抗氧化保护作用。方法小鼠腹腔注射D-半乳糖120 mg/kg和亚硝酸钠100 mg/kg制备AD模型。将40只小鼠按数字编号随机分为正常组(C组)、模型组(M组)以及3个剂量实验组,每组8只,3个剂量实验组分别给予螺旋藻多糖灌胃低剂量(El组)6.7 mg·kg-1·d-1,中剂量(Em组)67.0 mg·kg-1·d-1,高剂量(Eh组)134.0 mg·kg-1·d-1,连续8周,在给药第8周后,进行Morris水迷宫实验和生化指标测试。结果与M组相比,Em组、Eh组120 S内跨越平台的次数和在目标象限的探索时间均明显增加(P<0.05);小鼠脑部β淀粉样蛋白(Aβ1~42)含量减少,依次是M组>El组>Em组>C组>Eh组。氧化应激指标：与M组相比,锰超氧化物歧化酶（Mn-SOD）活性均有提高(P<0.05),依次是C组(64.22±22.31) Um/mg>Eh组(58.36±21.30) Um/mg>Em组(56.58±15.66) Um/mg>E1组(55.32±21.25) Um/mg>M组(42.68±11.58) Um/mg;活性氧(NOS)含量Eh组(30.70±4.68) mmol/L显著下降(P<0.05),丙二醛(MDA)活性Em、Eh组[(35.55±7.97) nmol/mg、(30.51±8.74) nmol/mg]显著下降;与E1组相比,Eh组抗氧化效果最好。结论螺旋藻多糖对阿尔茨海默病模型小鼠脑线粒体氧化应激有保护作用,是脑线粒体营养素,高剂量效果最佳。     

何首乌蛋白质和蒽醌苷对D-半乳糖衰老小鼠学习记忆及代谢产物的影响

[目的]观察何首乌蛋白质和蒽醌苷对D-半乳糖所致衰老小鼠学习记忆与相关酶及代谢产物的影响.[方法]选用昆明种小鼠80只,随机分为8组:正常组,模型组,维生素E(VE)组(剂量为90 mg·kg-1·d-1),何首乌蛋白质(PRPM)高、低剂量组(剂量分别为20、5 mg·kg-1·d-1),何首乌蒽醌苷(AGRPM)高、低剂量组(剂量分别为28、7 mg·kg-1·d-1),AGRPM与PRPM混合组 (混合组,均取两者低剂量);除正常组外,其他组均采用长期(7周)皮下注射D-半乳糖复制衰老小鼠模型.采用三等分辐射式迷宫测试小鼠的学习速率,用一次性被动回避反应测试小鼠的记忆能力;采用紫外可见分光光度计测定小鼠脑组织超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)和单胺氧化酶(MAO)的活力及脂质过氧化产物丙二醛(MDA)的含量;采用荧光分光光度计测定肝组织中脂褐素(LF)的含量.[结果]高剂量PRPM组能显著改善衰老小鼠的记忆能力(P<0.05),高剂量AGRPM组可显著改善衰老小鼠的学习速率和记忆能力(P<0.05或P<0.01):PRPM组和AGRPM组均能显著增加衰老小鼠的肝系数、胸腺系数、脑系数和脾系数(P<0.05或P<0.01),降低衰老小鼠脑组织MAO的活力、脂质过氧化产物MDA的含量及肝组织中LF的含量(均P<0.05或P<0.01);PRPM、AGRPM低剂量组及混合组均能显著增加衰老小鼠脑组织SOD的活力(P<0.05或P<0.01).[结论] 何首乌蛋白质和蒽醌苷具有一定的抗衰老及促进记忆能力的作用.     

醛酮类物质染毒对小鼠肺脏抗氧化能力的影响

目的:通过模拟生物燃料烟气中主要醛酮类物质染毒小鼠观察其对小鼠肺脏抗氧化能力的影响.方法:选用小鼠40只,随机分为2组:实验组和对照组,每组20只,雌雄各半.取甲醛(0.0663 mg)、乙醛(0.1181 mg)、苯甲醛(0. 147 mg)、丙酮(0. 609 mg)加水至1 000 ml,置于超声波雾化器中向已放入20只小鼠的染毒柜喷雾,每天喷雾1次,每次5 h,连续13 d.对照组放于另一柜中,除喷雾蒸馏水外,其它同实验组.以化学分析方法检测小鼠外周血和肺组织中丙二醛(MDA)含量、超氧歧化酶(SOD)与谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-Px)活力.结果:染毒小鼠肺脏MDA含量明显高于对照组[(17.88±2.08)nmol/mgprot vs (8.00±2.89) nmol/mgprot,P《0.001)]; SOD与GSH-Px活力明显降低[(24.08±2.04)NU/mgprot vs (38.77±8.95) NU/mgprot;(28.75±4.82) U/mgprot vs (34.76±1.43) U/mgprot],P《0.001),染毒小鼠外周血中MDA含量变化不明显[(6.06±1.91) nmol/mgprot vs (5.62±2.54) nmol/mgprot,P》0.05],但SOD与GSH-Px活力明显低于对照组[(81.78±8.83) NU/mgprot vs(108.63±14.13) NU/mgprot;(50.94±3.20) U/mgprot vs(60.46±4.14) U/mgprot,P《0.001].结论:模拟生物燃料烟气中主要醛酮类物质染毒小鼠可影响肺脏的抗氧化能力.     

心脑宁对皮肤衰老小鼠的干预性作用

目的观察心脑宁对D-半乳糖诱导的皮肤衰老小鼠的干预性作用。方法将40只雌性小鼠随机分为模型组、心脑宁组、生理盐水组和对照组,每组10只。对照组小鼠不进行任何处理;其余3组小鼠于颈背部皮下注射D-半乳糖125 mg·kg-1·d-1,连续42 d。在注射D-半乳糖21 d后,模型组不给予任何干预措施,心脑宁组小鼠给予心脑宁灌胃(0.375 g·kg-1·d-1),生理盐水组小鼠给予等量生理盐水灌胃,连续灌胃21 d后,处死所有小鼠。分别检测血清与皮肤组织中超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性及丙二醇(MDA)和羟脯氨酸(HYP)水平。结果模型组小鼠血清与皮肤组织中SOD活性和HYP水平明显低于对照组,MDA水平明显高于对照组(P<0.01)。心脑宁组小鼠血清与皮肤组织中SOD活性和HYP水平明显高于模型组和生理盐水组(P<0.01);MDA水平明显低于模型组和生理盐水组(P<0.01)。模型组小鼠血清与皮肤组织中SOD活性及HYD、MDA水平与生理盐水组比较差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05)。心脑宁组小鼠血清和皮肤组织中SOD活性及MDA、HYP水平与对照组比较差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论心脑宁可阻止由D-半乳糖引起的皮肤衰老现象,对延缓和预防皮肤衰老具有一定作用。     

牡蛎肉提取物对类固醇性骨质疏松大鼠骨代谢的影响

目的探讨牡蛎肉提取物对类固醇性骨质疏松大鼠骨代谢的影响。方法40只3月龄SD大鼠,随机分成年龄对照组(A组)、泼尼松组(B组)、低剂量牡蛎组(C组)、高剂量牡蛎组(D组)。A组灌生理盐水4mg·kg-1.d-1,B组予4mg·kg-1.d-1泼尼松灌胃,C组灌胃给予牡蛎肉提取物5g·kg-1.d-1+醋酸泼尼松4mg·kg-1.d-1,D组给予牡蛎肉提取物10g·kg-1.d-1+醋酸泼尼松4mg·kg-1.d-1,共90d。实验结束后,处死全部大鼠,取尺骨和血清做生化指标测定。结果泼尼松可致大鼠尺骨羟脯氨酸的含量减少,骨钙、骨磷、骨锌、骨铁的含量显著降低;血钙显著升高,碱性磷酸酶含量降低。牡蛎提取物可提高大鼠骨钙、骨磷、骨锌、骨铁含量;使血钙降低恢复正常,碱性磷酸酶浓度升高,各项指标均接近正常对照组水平,且高剂量组比低剂量组效果更明显。结论牡蛎肉提取物可以有效防治泼尼松引起的骨代谢紊乱。     

Value of D-Dimers in patients with acute aortic dissection

Objective: To evaluatel the value of D-dimers in patients with acute aortic dissection (AAD). Methods: This study consisted of 16 patients with AAD and 27 non-AAD patients. Serum D-dimets were measured by Sta-Liatest D-DI immunoturbidimetric assay. Results: D-dimer level was higher (P ＜ 0.001) in patients with AAD(7.91 ± 5.52 μg/ml) than that in non- AAD group(1.57±1.24 μg/ml). D-dimer was positive (＞0.4 μg/ml) in all patients with AAD and in 10 control group patients (37%). Among patients with acute AAD, D-dimers tended to be higher in Stanford A than in Stanford B (8.67 ± 4.31 μg/ml vs. 3.24±1.27 μg/ml, P ＜0.01). D-dimer values tended to be higher in more extended disease(3.84 ± 1.65 μg/ml, 8.57 ± 3.58 μg/ml and 11.87 ± 5.69 μg/ml in thoracic aorta, thoracic and abdominal aorta, thoracic and abdominal aorta and iliacal arteries, respectively, P ＜ 0.05 for both 8.57 ± 3.58 and 11.87 ± 5.69 vs. 3.84 ± 1.65 ). Including the control group into the analysis, we found a sensitivity of 100%, a negative predictive value of 100%, and a specificity of 66% and a positive predictive value of 64% for D-dimer in diagnosis of AAD in our patients with suspected AAD. Conclusion: D-dimer was elevated in patients with AAD. A negative D-dimer test result could be useful in excluding AAD.     

Research of combined liver-kidney transplantation model in rats

Objective： To set up a simple and reliable rat model of combined liver-kidney transplantation. Methods： SD rats served as both donors and recipients. 4℃ sodium lactate Ringer＇s was infused from portal veins to donated livers,and from abdominal aorta to donated kidneys, respectively. Anastomosis of the portal vein and the inferior vena cava （IVC） inferior to the right kidney between the graft and the recipient was performed by a double cuff method, then the superior hepatic vena cava with suture. A patch of donated renal artery was anastomosed to the recipient abdominal aorta. The urethra and bile duct were reconstructed with a simple inside bracket. Results： Among 65 cases of combined liver-kidney transplantation, the success rate in the late 40 cases was 77.5%. The function of the grafted liver and kidney remained normal. Conclusion： This rat model of combined liver-kidney transplantation can be established in common laboratory conditions with high success rate and meet the needs of renal transplantation experiment.     

BLOOD PRESSURE CHANGE WITH AGE IN SALT-SENSITIVE TEENAGERS

Objective To observe blood pressure change with age in salt-sensitive teenagers whose salt sensitivity were determined by repeated testing.Methods Salt sensitivity was determined through intravenous infusion of normal saline combined with volume-depletion by oral diuretic furosemide in 55 teenagers. After five years, salt sensitivity was re-examined and subject blood pressure was followed up. Blood pressure changes in salt-sensitive teenagers were compared to that of non-salt sensitive teenagers over five years.Results After 5 years, the repetition rate of salt sensitivity determined by intravenous saline loading is 92.7%. In teenagers with salt sensitivity on the baseline, both the systolic blood pressure increments and increment rates were much higher than non-salt sensitive teenagers (12.7±12.1 mmHg vs. 2.8±5.2 mmHg, P＜ 0.01; 12.2%± 12.0% vs. 2.5% ±4.4%, P＜ 0.001,respectively). There was a similar trend for diastolic blood pressure (8.4 ± 6.4 mmHg vs. 3.7 ± 6.4 mmHg, P = 0.052; 13.2% ±10.6 % vs. 6.8%± 10.1%, P = 0.053, respectively).Conclusions Salt sensitivity determined by intravenous saline loading showed good reproducibility. Blood pressure increments with age were much higher in salt-sensitive teenagers than non-salt sensitive teenagers, especially in terms of systolic blood pressure.     

APPLICATION OF LORNOXICAM TO PATIENT-CONTROLLED ANALGESIA IN PATIENTS UNDERGOING ABDOMINAL SURGERIES

FOR anesthesiologis s ,treatingpostoperativepainhas alwaysbeen a problem.Althoughopioidshave been provedtobe effective,theirsideeffectscouldnotbeignored.With thedevelopmentofscienceand pharmacology,many drugs with aspectsof satisfactoryanalgesicefficacyand couldbe welltoleratedby patientshave been developed.And lornoxicamisone of them, which isa non-steroidalanti-inflammatorydrug (NSAID ), with analgesic, anti-infl-ammatory,andantipyreticproperties.Itseliminationhalf-time(3 to 5 hours) isle…     

安心颗粒对急诊经皮冠状动脉介入术后生活质量影响的研究

目的：评价使用安心颗粒对急诊经皮冠状动脉介入术（PPCI）术后生活质量的影响.方法：将160例接受PPCI的急性ST段抬高型心肌梗死患者随机分为安心颗粒组（术前顿服安心颗粒8.8g,术后安心颗粒4.4 g/次,每日2次）和对照组（仅接受基础药物治疗）.所有患者均服用阿司匹林、氯吡格雷和阿托伐他汀.分别在入院时、出院前1d、出院后180 d时,应用心肌梗死多维度量表（MIDAS）、中文版SF-36评价量表对患者生活质量评分.并观察术后30 d以内的出血并发症、血小板减少症发生情况.结果：入院时和出院前1d,两组患者的心肌梗死MIDAS、SF-36量表评分比较无差异（P＞0.05）;出院后180 d时,与对照组比较,安心颗粒组MIDAS、SF-36评分明显减低（P＜0.05）;组内与入院时比较,两组出院前1d、出院后180 d时,MIDAS、SF-36评分均降低（P＜0.05）.两组患者在随访期间均无大量出血、少量出血、重度和极重度血小板减少症发生,安心颗粒组有4例、对照组有7例发生不明显出血（P＞0.05）.两组发生轻度血小板减少症的患者数比较无差异（P＞0.05）.结论：PPCI使用安心颗粒,能改善急性ST段抬高型心肌梗死患者的生活质量,且不增加出血风险.     

The comparative studies of the influences of Urapidil and Nicardipine on sino-atrial node function, atrio-ventricular node function and hemodynamics

Objective:To investigate the influences of urapidil and nicardipine on rabbit sinus function,atrio-ventricular node function and hemodynamics.Methods:Thirty-two Angora's rabbits were selected and randomly divided into four groups.U1 group:urapidil 0.25 mg/kg;U2 group:urapidil 0.5 mg/kg;N1 group:nicardipine 10 μg/kg;N2 group:nicardipine 20 μg/kg.All these medicine were administrated within 30 seconds.Measurements were taken before and after the administration of urapidil or nicardipine for the following data:mean blood pressure(MAP),heart rate(HR),sino-atrial conduction time(SACT),maximal sinoatrial recovery time(SNRTmax)corrected sinus node recovery time(CSNRT),index of sinus node recovery time(SNRTI),Wenckebach A-V conduction frequency (WB),and P-R interval.Results:Significant MAP and HR changes were identified in all of the four groups before and after administration of both urapidil and nicardipine.No significant changes could be found in the rest of the parameters.Intergroup analysis showed that SACT and CSNRT of N1 and N2 groups were shorter than those of the U2 group(P＜0.01);the MAP decreased(P＜0.01)and the HR increased drastically(P＜0.01).Conclusions:Neither urapidil(0.25 mg/kg,0.5 mg/kg)nor nicardipine(10μg/kg,20μg/kg)has any significant influence on rabbit sinus function or rabbit atrio-ventricular node function.Nicardipine could be a better choice than urapidil for parafunctional sinus node patients.     

Dynamic Changes in Serum Estradiol and Progesterone levels in Patients of Premenstrual Syndrome with Adverse Flow of Liver-qi

Objective:To probe into the influence of changes of ovarian hormones on the pathogenesis of the specific sub-type premenstrual syndrome(PMS)and reveal partial microcosmic mechanisms of adverse flow of liver-qi.Methods:Estradiol(E2)and progesterone(P)levels in serum were determined at different phases of menstrual cycle by radioimmunoassay.Results:In the group of PMS with adverse flow of liver-qi.the secretive peak value Of E2 and P at the follicular phase significantly decreased,and the secretive peak value at the luteal phase did not come into being.Conclusions:Low E2 and P secretive peak at the follicular phase and absence of secretive peak at the luteal phase is one of the microcosmic mechanisms of PMS with adverse flow of liver-qi.One of the pathophysiologic mechanisms of specific sub-type PMS is probably the continuous low level of E2and P.     

Real-time Three-dimensional Echocardiography in Assessment of Left Ventricular and Right Ventricular Volumes

Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography (RT3DE)is a new ultrasound technique that enables dynamic threedimensional visualization and quantification of the heart in real time. Investigation of feasibility and methodology of RT3DE in determining left ventricular (LV) and right ventricular (RV) volumes, RT3DE was performed in 35 normal adults using Philips SONOS 7500 system with a 2-4 MHz matrix array transducer. The 60°×60° "pyramid" volume database was obtained and analyzed on a TomTec echo workstation. Both LV and RV volumes were calculated with four 3DE methods (i.e. apical 2, 4, 8, and 16-plane) through manually tracing ventricular endocardial borders in end diastole and end systole. Stroke volumes were then calculated. LV volume was also measured by 2DE Simpson's rule using GE VIVID 7 ultrasound machine.     

SCREENING FOR A 21-CHROMOSOME ABNORMALITY IN PREIMPLANTED EMBRYOS OF ELDERLY WOMEN

Increasing maternal age is the only etiological factor unequivocally linked to Down's syndrome in humans. The occurrence rate of newborns with Down's syndrome is about 1/220 in women over 35 years old. However, the occurrence rate in embryos fertilized in vitro, of the elder woman is unclear. Using FISH we screened the number of chromosome 21 in preimplanted embryos of 5 elderly women (average age, 38.4 years) to study the feasibility and necessity of screening trisomy 21 in embryos in patients over 35 years old at the in vitro fertilization (IVF) center.     

Scientific principles and rigorous processes should be followed in developing clinical guidelines for therapeutic interventions of integrative medicine

A clinical guideline for the therapeutic interventions of integrative medicine may be defined as a written document which states a series of recommendations on therapeutic interventions of integrative medicine for a special disease or condition. The guideline may provide assistance to medical professionals in making clinical decisions aimed at improving the clinical outcome of patients and reducing the costs of medical care（~＇4~. Recommendations issued by a guideline should be based on the best available evidence in both Western and Chinese medicine. For fulfilling this purpose, the development of clinical guidelines for therapeutic interventions in the field of integrative medicine should follow scientific principles and undergo a rigorous processes.