小胶质细胞自噬和炎症及其交互作用对脑出血调控机制的研究进展

脑出血好发于中老年人,对中老年人健康威胁极大。我国脑出血发病率仅次于脑梗死,是第二大脑卒中类型,且脑出血患者在脑卒中患者中所占比例远高于西方发达国家,这对已步入老龄化的中国社会及患者家庭造成了沉重的负担。目前,临床尚缺乏确切有效的脑出血治疗手段。作为大脑组织的主要吞噬细胞,小胶质细胞在脑出血后脑损伤过程中发挥着重要作用,如通过自噬及调节炎症发挥中枢神经系统保护作用、减轻脑损伤等。本文综述了小胶质细胞自噬和炎症及其交互作用对脑出血的调控机制,旨在为脑出血的诊疗、新治疗靶点的发现及预后改善等提供参考。     

黄芪甲苷通过促进小胶质细胞/巨噬细胞M2型极化抑制大鼠脑缺血后炎症反应

目的: 研究黄芪甲苷对大鼠脑缺血后小胶质细胞/巨噬细胞M1/M2极化及炎症反应的影响。方法: 将48只大鼠随机分为手术对照组、模型对照组和黄芪甲苷组。采用线栓法建立大鼠大脑中动脉阻塞模型。黄芪甲苷组造模后即刻腹腔注射黄芪甲苷（40 mg/kg）,随后1次/d,连续给药3 d。各组术后第1、3天采用改良的神经损伤严重程度评分（mNSS）和角试验进行神经功能评价;术后第3天采用2,3,5-氯化三苯基四氮唑染料（TTC）染色检测脑梗死体积;实时逆转录PCR检测M1型小胶质细胞/巨噬细胞表面标志物CD86、诱导型一氧化氮合酶（iNOS）和促炎因子TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6的mRNA表达,以及M2型小胶质细胞/巨噬细胞表面标志物CD206、精氨酸酶1（Arg-1）、类几丁质酶3样分子1/2（YM1/2）及抗炎因子IL-10、TGF-β的mRNA表达;免疫荧光双标记法检测脑缺血周边区CD16/32/Iba1和CD206/Iba1的表达。结果: 与模型对照组比较,黄芪甲苷组mNSS分值降低、右转次数减少（P < 0.05或P < 0.01）,脑梗死体积减小（P < 0.01）,M1型小胶质细胞/巨噬细胞标志物CD86、iNOS、TNF-α、IL-1β和IL-6的mRNA表达下调（均P < 0.01）,M2型小胶质细胞/巨噬细胞标志物CD206、Arg-1、YM1/2、IL-10和TGF-β的mRNA表达上调（均P < 0.01）,脑缺血区CD16/32⁺/Iba1⁺细胞数量减少（P < 0.05）,CD206⁺/Iba1⁺细胞数量增加（P < 0.01）。结论: 黄芪甲苷对大鼠脑缺血损伤有保护作用,可能与促进小胶质细胞/巨噬细胞从M1型向M2型转化、抑制炎症反应有关。     

幻肢痛大鼠脊髓背角小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞数量的变化

目的 探讨幻肢痛大鼠脊髓背角小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞数量的变化.方法 健康成年SD大鼠11只,雌雄不拘,体重290～300 g,采用随机数字表法,将其随机分为2组:假手术组(S组,n=5)和单侧坐骨神经横断组(SNT组,n=6).术后持续观察SNT组大鼠自噬情况,并进行自噬评分.术后28d时取L5节段脊髓组织,分别进行iba-1(标记小胶质细胞)及胶质纤维酸性蛋白(标记星形胶质细胞)免疫组化染色,进行手术侧和非手术侧脊髓背角小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞的计数.结果 S组无一只大鼠发生自噬,SNT组术后2d开始陆续发生自噬,最高自噬评分9～11分.与S组比较,SNT组手术侧脊髓背角小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞数量均减少(P＜0.05).结论 幻肢痛大鼠脊髓背角小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞数量减少.     

电磁脉冲对BV-2细胞形态和分泌功能的影响及其机制探讨

目的 研究电磁脉冲( electromagnetic pulse,EMP)对小鼠BV-2小胶质细胞形态及分泌功能的影响,并初步探讨其作用机制.方法 离体培养的BV-2细胞经200 kV/m EMP辐照200次,分别在辐照后1、6、12、24h收集细胞培养上清及细胞.倒置显微镜下观察细胞形态变化,ELISA法检测培养上清中肿瘤坏死因子-α(TN F-α)、白细胞介素(IL)-1β、IL-10等细胞因子水平的变化,硝酸还原酶法检测培养上清中一氧化氮(NO)水平,DCFH-DA探针检测活性氧,免疫印迹(Western-blot)法检测细胞外信号调节激酶(ERK)、c -Jun氨基末端激酶(JNK)、p38磷酸化水平和蛋白表达量的变化.应用p38抑制剂( SB203580)预处理细胞后再进行EMP辐照,然后检测培养上清中NO水平和活性氧的生成.结果 EMP辐照后1、6和12h,部分小胶质细胞出现胞体变大、突触变粗变短,且活化细胞比例与假辐照组相比明显增加,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);EMP辐照后细胞培养上清中TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-10等细胞因子水平未发生明显改变,但活性氧检测结果显示,与假辐照组(小胶质细胞平均荧光强度10.34)相比,EMP辐照后1h小胶质细胞荧光强度(平均荧光强度21.56)明显增加,6h达峰值(平均值为32.46),12h开始恢复(平均荧光强度24.36),差异均有统计学意义(P＜0.05),24h恢复至假辐照水平;EMP辐照后NO水平的变化与活性氧一致,辐照后1h开始增加,6h达峰值,12h开始恢复,24h恢复至假辐照组水平;蛋白杂交结果显示,EMP辐照后1、6h,p38的磷酸化水平和蛋白水平较假辐照组明显增加,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05),ERK和JNK无明显变化.应用p38抑制剂SB203580预处理细胞,明显抑制了EMP诱导的小胶质细胞对活性氧和NO的产生,活性氧水平除6h组未恢复至假辐照水平外,其他各组均恢复至假辐照水平,NO水平各组均恢复至假辐照组水平.结论 EMP辐照可活化小胶质细胞并且促进其对NO和活性氧的生成,p38信号通路参与了此过程.     

Microglia mediate diesel exhaust particle-induced cerebellar neuronal toxicity through neuroinflammatory mechanisms

In addition to the well-established effects of air pollution on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, emerging evidence has implicated it in inducing negative effects on the central nervous system. Diesel exhaust particulate matter (DEP), a major component of air pollution, is a complex mixture of numerous toxicants. Limited studies have shown that DEP-induced dopaminergic neuron dysfunction is mediated by microglia, the resident immune cells of the brain. Here we show that mouse microglia similarly mediate primary cerebellar granule neuron (CGN) death in vitro. While DEP (0, 25, 50, 100 μg/2 cm²) had no effect on CGN viability after 24 h of treatment, in the presence of primary cortical microglia neuronal cell death increased by 2–3-fold after co-treatment with DEP, suggesting that microglia are important contributors to DEP-induced CGN neurotoxicity. DEP (50 μg/2 cm²) treatment of primary microglia for 24 h resulted in morphological changes indicative of microglia activation, suggesting that DEP may induce the release of cytotoxic factors. Microglia-conditioned medium after 24 h treatment with DEP, was also toxic to CGNs. DEP caused a significant increase in reactive oxygen species in microglia, however, antioxidants failed to protect neurons from DEP/microglia-induced toxicity. DEP increased mRNA levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL1-β, and the release of IL-6. The antibiotic minocycline (50 μM) and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ agonist pioglitazone (50 μM) attenuated DEP-induced CGN death in the co-culture system. Microglia and CGNs from male mice appeared to be somewhat more susceptible to DEP neurotoxicity than cells from female mice possibly because of lower paraoxonase-2 expression. Together, these results suggest that microglia-induced neuroinflammation may play a critical role in modulating the effect of DEP on neuronal viability. .     

Differential effects of stress on microglial cell activation in male and female medial prefrontal cortex

Susceptibility to stress-linked psychological disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder and depression, differs between men and women. Dysfunction of medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) has been implicated in many of these disorders. Chronic stress affects mPFC in a sex-dependent manner, differentially remodeling dendritic morphology and disrupting prefrontally mediated behaviors in males and females. Chronic restraint stress induces microglial activation, reflected in altered microglial morphology and immune factor expression, in mPFC in male rats. Unstressed females exhibit increased microglial ramification in several brain regions compared to males, suggesting both heightened basal activation and a potential for sex-dependent effects of stress on microglial activation. Therefore, we assessed microglial density and ramification in the prelimbic region of mPFC, and immune-associated genes in dorsal mPFC in male and female rats following acute or chronic restraint stress. Control rats were left unstressed. On the final day of restraint, brains were collected for either qPCR or visualization of microglia using Iba-1 immunohistochemistry. Microglia in mPFC were classified as ramified, primed, reactive, or amoeboid, and counted stereologically. Expression of microglia-associated genes (MHCII, CD40, IL6, CX3CL1, and CX3CR1) was also assessed using qPCR. Unstressed females showed a greater proportion of primed to ramified microglia relative to males, alongside heightened CX3CL1–CX3CR1 expression. Acute and chronic restraint stress reduced the proportion of primed to ramified microglia and microglial CD40 expression in females, but did not significantly alter microglial activation in males. This sex difference in microglial activation could contribute to the differential effects of stress on mPFC structure and function in males versus females.     

Nafamostat mesilate improves function recovery after stroke by inhibiting neuroinflammation in rats

Inflammation plays an important role in stroke pathology, making it a promising target for stroke intervention. Nafamostat mesilate (NM), a wide-spectrum serine protease inhibitor, is commonly used for treating inflammatory diseases, such as pancreatitis. However, its effect on neuroinflammation after stroke was unknown. Hence, the effects of NM on the inflammatory response post stroke were characterized. After transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) in rats, NM reduced the infarct size, improved behavioral functions, decreased the expression of proinflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS and COX-2) in a time-dependent manner and promoted the expression of different anti-inflammatory factors (CD206, TGF-β, IL-10 and IL-4) at different time points. Furthermore, NM could inhibit the expression of proinflammatory mediators and promote anti-inflammatory mediators expression in rat primary microglia following exposure to thrombin combined with oxygen–glucose deprivation (OGD). The immune-modulatory effect of NM might be partly due to its inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway and inflammasome activation after tMCAO. In addition, NM significantly inhibited the infiltration of macrophage, neutrophil and T lymphocytes, which was partly mediated by the inhibition of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1). Taken together, our results indicated that NM can provide long-term protection of the brain against tMCAO by modulating a broad components of the inflammatory response.     

Transforming growth factor-β1 acts via TβR-I on microglia to protect against MPP+-induced dopaminergic neuronal loss

Neuroinflammation is associated with pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease (PD), a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a progressive loss of dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons within the substantia nigra. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 exerts anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. However, it is unclear if microglia are required for TGF-β1 neuroprotection in PD. Here we used both shRNA and pharmacologic inhibition to determine the role of microglial TGF-β receptor (TβR)-I and its downstream signaling pathways in 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP⁺)-induced DAergic neuronal toxicity. As expected, MPP⁺ reduced the number of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-immunoreactive cells in ventral mesencephalic cell cultures. We found that MPP⁺ activated microglia as determined by an upregulation in expression of CD11b and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), an increase in expression and secretion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β, and a decrease in expression and secretion of the neurotrophic factor, insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1. Pretreatment with TGF-β1 significantly inhibited all these changes caused by MPP⁺. Expression of microglial TβR-I was upregulated by TGF-β1. Silencing of the TβR-I gene in microglia abolished both the neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of TGF-β1. TGF-β1 increased microglial p38 MAPK and Akt phosphorylation, both of which were blocked by the p38 inhibitor SB203580 and the PI3K inhibitor LY294002, respectively. Pretreatment of microglia with either SB203580 or LY294002 impaired the ability of TGF-β1 to inhibit MPP⁺-induced DAergic neuronal loss and microglial activation. These findings establish that TGF-β1 activates TβR-I and its downstream p38 MAPK and PI3K–Akt signaling pathways in microglia to protect against DAergic neuronal loss that characterizes in PD.     

TNF-α from hippocampal microglia induces working memory deficits by acute stress in mice

The role of microglia in stress responses has recently been highlighted, yet the underlying mechanisms of action remain unresolved. The present study examined disruption in working memory due to acute stress using the water-immersion resistant stress (WIRS) test in mice. Mice were subjected to acute WIRS, and biochemical, immunohistochemical, and behavioral assessments were conducted. Spontaneous alternations (working memory) significantly decreased after exposure to acute WIRS for 2 h. We employed a 3D morphological analysis and site- and microglia-specific gene analysis techniques to detect microglial activity. Morphological changes in hippocampal microglia were not observed after acute stress, even when assessing ramification ratios and cell somata volumes. Interestingly, hippocampal tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α levels were significantly elevated after acute stress, and acute stress-induced TNF-α was produced by hippocampal-ramified microglia. Conversely, plasma concentrations of TNF-α were not elevated after acute stress. Etanercept (TNF-α inhibitor) recovered working memory deficits in accordance with hippocampal TNF-α reductions. Overall, results suggest that TNF-α from hippocampal microglia is a key contributor to early-stage stress-to-mental responses.