Munchausen syndrome by proxy and factitious illness: Symptomatology,parent-child interaction,and psychopathology of the parents

The term Munchausen syndrome by proxy is used to diagnose children presenting symptoms of an organic disorder resulting from manipulations initiated by their caretakers. Even in early infancy it happens that injuries are induced, and that drugs, poisons or medicine are administered in order to provoke and feign clinical symptoms of severe diseases. Exact data on prevalence are not available but it is obvious that Munchausen syndrome by proxy is a rare psychiatric disorder. There is a body of evidence that Munchausen syndrome by proxy is nothing but the extreme of a broader clinical entity for which the term factitious illness has been introduced. In this group children are included whose mothers invent a history of disease in order to produce symptoms without actually damaging their children. It is not well established whether such a distinction is necessary and whether there are differences in long-term outcome. Onset of symptoms is as early as three weeks up to twelve years, and mean age of diagnosis according to a more comprehensive study is 3 1/4 year. The estimated mortality rate of children with Munchausen syndrome by proxy is 9 percent. In three of the four cases of children reported here clinical presentations were dominated by symptoms of central nervous disorders. All mothers showed unsure and inconsistent parental behaviour and inefficient coping. None of them received support from their partners, if present. In interaction the children always wanted to dominate their mothers. The high amount of personality disorders observed in the caretakers might be the reason for the often reported failure of psychotherapeutic interventions.

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Zusammenfassung Die Diagnose Münchhausen Stellvertreter Syndrom wird bei Kindern gestellt, die Symptome einer organischen Erkrankung zeigen, die durch Manipulationen von Eltern oder anderen Sorgeberechtigten hervorgerufen werden. Vielfach werden bereits im frühen Kindesalter den Kindern Verletzungen beigebracht, Drogen, Gifte oder Medikamente verabreicht, um die klinischen Merkmale schwerer Erkrankungen vorzutäuschen. Obwohl genaue Angaben zur Häufigkeit fehlen, kann man insgesamt von einer seltenen Störung ausgehen. Es gibt zahlreiche Hinweise dafür, daß es sich beim Münchhausen Stellvertreter Syndrom um die seltene, aber sehr schwere Ausprägungsform in einer größeren Gruppe von Störungen gleichartigen klinischen Bildes handelt, für die man den Begriff der vorgetäuschte Störungen geprägt hat. In dieser Gruppe werden auch die Kinder erfaßt, deren Mütter ausschließlich Symptome und eine zugehörige Krankheitsgeschichte erfinden, die aber keine körperlichen Eingriffe (einschließlich Drogen- und Medikamentenverabreichung) vornehmen, um organische Symptome zu simulieren. Unklar ist, ob eine solche Unterscheidung notwendig und hilfreich ist. Bisher fehlen Hinweise auf Unterschiede in der Prognose im Langzeitverlauf zwischen den Untergruppen. Die Symptomatik eines Münchhausen Stellvertreter Syndroms konnte bereits bei Kindern im Alter von 3 Wochen beobachtet werden und wurde noch bei 12jährigen gefunden. In einer größeren Studie wurde ein mittleres Alter von 3 3/4Jahren für den Zeitpunkt der Diagnosestellung ermittelt. Die Sterblichkeitsrate wird auf 9 Prozent geschätzt. Bei den vier Kindern, über deren Symptomatik hier berichtet wird, standen bei drei zentralnervöse Störungen im Vordergrund. Drei Mütter gaben zusätzlich den Verdacht des sexuellen Mißbrauchs ihrer Kinder an. Die motivationalen Aspekte lassen deudiche Unterschiede erkennen. Bei drei Müttern bestand der Wunsch nach Schutz des Kindes vor realem oder vermeintlichem sexuellem Mißbrauch des Kindes. Alle Mütter hatten mindestens eine gescheiterte eheliche Beziehung. Im Erziehungsverhalten wirkten sie unsicher, inkompetent und inkonsistent; von ihren Partnern, sofern vorhanden, erhielten sie keine erzieherische Unterstützung. In der Mutter-Kind Interaktion vermochten die Kinder über die Mütter zu dominieren. Der hohe Anteil an Persönlichkeitsstörungen bei den hier beschriebenen Sorgeberechtigten könnte der Grund für das häufig berichtete Scheitern psychotherapeutischer Interventionen sein.

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Résumé On parle de Syndrôme de Munchausen par procuration chez des enfants, qui présentent des troubles organiques résultant de manipulations de leurs responsables éducatifs. Des blessures, l'administration de médicaments, de drogues ou de poison — même chez des enfants très jeunes — ont pour effet de provoquer et simuler un tableau clinique sévère. Il s'agit d'un désordre psychiatrique rare — les chiffres exacts de prévalence sont difficiles à évaluer. Le Syndrome est décrit chez l'enfant à partir de l'âge de trois semaines jusqu'à 12 ans. L'âge moyen est de trois ans et quart. La mortalité chez les enfants porteurs d'un syndrome de Munchausen par procuration est estimé à 9%. Dans trois des quatre cas présentés le tableau clinique est dominé par des symptômes d'ordre neurologique. De manière supplémentaire trois mères rapportent un abus sexuel de leurs enfants. Les mères se caracterisent par leur incompétence et inconséquence éducative; souvent elles sont sans soutien éducatif de leur partenaire. Dans l'interaction mère — enfant les enfants ont un comportement dominant envers leur mère. La non-efficacité des interventions psychothérapeutiques peut être liée a un pourcentage élevé de troubles de la personnalité chez les parents.

     

Penetrating gunshots to the head and lack of immediate incapacitation II. Review of case reports

Because of the enhanced intracranial tissue disruption (see companion paper) and the functional significance of the central nervous system, penetrating gunshot wounds of the head commonly result in immediate incapacitation. However, in the last century numerous publications reported sustained capability to act following penetrating gunshot wounds of the head. These are reviewed. A large number of case reports had to be excluded from re-examination because of doubtful capability to act or lack of morphological documentation. There remained 53 case reports from 42 sources for systematic analysis. Favourable conditions for sustained capability to act are present in cases where the additional wounding resulting from the special wound ballistic qualities of the head (see companion paper) are minimized. Thus, more than 70% of the guns used fired slow and lightweight bullets: 6.35 mm Browning, .22 rimfire or extremely ineffective projectiles (ancient, inappropriate or selfmade). A centrefire rifle or a shotgun from close range were never employed in cases involving intracerebral tracts. A coincidence of several lucky circumstances made sustained capability to act possible in two cases of military centrefire rifle bullets passing longitudinally between the frontal lobes without direct contact with brain tissue. Only two large handguns resulting in intracerebral wounding were used: one firing a .38 special bullet, which solely wounded the base of the right temporal lobe and one firing a .45 lead bullet, which seriously injured the left frontal lobe but whose trajectory was limited to the anterior fossa of the skull.Of the trajectories, 28% were outside the neurocranium. At least 70% of the craniocerebral tracts passed above the anterior fossa of the skull, wounding the frontal parts of the brain. Apart from a neurophysiological approach, this preference can be explained by the fact that the base of the anterior cranial fossa and the sella turcica area serve as a bony barrier protecting the parts of the brain located in its shadow relative to the trajectory against cavitational tissue displacement and associated overpressures. This is particularly true of the brain stem. Intracerebral trajectories not located above the anterior fossa were caused by slow and lightweight bullets preferring one temporal lobe. Additionally, one parietal and one occipital lobe were each injured once by a very ineffective projectile and by a 7.65-mm bullet reduced in velocity. Not a single case of injury to the brain stem, the diencephalon, the cerebellum or major paths of motor conduction and only one grazing shot of the anterior parts of the nucleus caudatus (basal ganglia) were described. Morphological signs of high intracranial pressure peaks (cortical contusion zones, indirect skull fractures, perivascular haemorrhages) and secondary missiles were poorly documented. It is suggested that these findings are at least very rare and not obvious in cases of sustained capability to act.     

微量元素Zn,Cu,Fe与高血压关系的病例对照研究

目的探讨原发性高血压的发病因素。方法病例对照研究方法,分析了微量元素Ｚｎ、Ｃｕ、Ｆｅ与高血压的关系。结果Ｃｕ、Ｆｅ、Ｚｎ／Ｃｕ、Ｚｎ／Ｆｅ、Ｆｅ／Ｃｕ与高血压有一定关系,其中以Ｃｕ、Ｆｅ／Ｃｕ与高血压的关系更为密切。同时单相关分析说明Ｆｅ对收缩压和舒张压有正性作用,Ｚｎ／Ｆｅ对收缩压有负性联系。结论Ｚｎ／Ｃｕ、Ｚｎ／Ｆｅ、Ｆｅ／Ｃｕ对血压的作用较独立的Ｚｎ、Ｃｕ、Ｆｅ显著     

小儿咽后脓肿14例临床分析

报告１４ 例小儿咽后脓肿,急性型１３ 例,慢性型１ 例;异物性２ 例,结核性１ 例,邻近炎症扩散引起者２ 例,上呼吸道感染所致９ 例;１４ 例颈侧位Ｘ线片示脓肿２ 例,１０ 例颈部ＣＴ扫描示脓肿７ 例。所有病例经脓液引流及抗炎或抗痨治疗后痊愈。     

载脂蛋白(a)亚型与脑梗塞的病因学联系

为探讨 Ｌｐ（ａ）、ａｐｏ（ａ）与脑梗塞病因学的关系,阐明ａｐｏ（ａ）基因表型对脑梗塞的调控作用,检测了 ９０ 例经 Ｃ Ｔ 确诊的脑梗塞患者血清 Ｌｐ（ａ）含量,并分离出 １３ 种 ａｐｏ（ａ）表型,与对照（以年龄、性别配比）比较。结果表明,高 Ｌｐ（ａ）者（≥３０ｍ ｇ／ｄｌ）患脑梗塞的危险性为正常者（＜ ３０ｍ ｇ／ｄｌ）的 ３５６ 倍（ Ｐ＜ ０．０１）,ａｐｏ（ａ）分子量与 Ｌｐ（ａ）水平呈高度负相关,ｒ＝ － ０．４８１,说明 ａｐｏ（ａ）大小决定了约 ４８％ 的 Ｌｐ（ａ）水平。ａｐｏ（ａ）等位基因 Ｌｐ Ｂ、 Ｌｐ Ｓ１、 Ｌｐ Ｓ２ 可能是易发脑梗塞者的基因标志。     

Cholinergic-drug induced sicca syndrome in Parkinson's disease: a case report and a review of the literature

A 67-year-old woman developed severe sicca manifestations after initial treatment of Parkinson’s disease with an anti-cholinergic drug, which prompted us to look for the presence of Sjögren’s syndrome. The results of sialography, labial salivary gland biopsy, Rose–Bengal test as well as the presence of antinuclear antibody were consistent with the diagnosis of Sjögren’s syndrome. The sicca symptoms diminished by cessation of the anti-cholinergic drug, and the parkinsonian features were controlled by levodopa. We suggest that Sjögren’s syndrome should be considered, if patients with Parkinson’s disease complain severe xerostomia.     

体质指数与非吸烟女性肺癌关系的病例对照研究

研究分析体质指数与非吸烟女性肺癌的关系。方法１９９２年２月至１９９３年１２月,上海地区开展的一项大规模女性肺癌人群基础上的病例对照研究,共调查了非吸烟女性肺癌病例５０４例及人群对照６０１例。     

Outbreak of cholera in Ibadan, Nigeria

The changing epidemiology of cholera in Ibadan, Nigeria, has become a public health challenge, and outbreaks of the disease have been occurring with increasing frequency since the first outbreak in modern times in 1970. In this outbreak, 1384 persons were seen, diagnosed and treated for the disease at the cholera unit, Ibadan from January to December 1996. The outbreak lasted for a whole year. No child under one year was seen. The age adjusted case fatality rate was 5.3%. Diarrhoea and vomiting were the most common combination of symptoms present in 97.3% of all cases, followed by diarrhoea, vomiting and dehydration (84.3%). The median number of days spent on admission was only 2 days. Cholera cases were clustered within the densely populated and poorly planned areas of the city. Though significantly more cases were seen during the rainy season than during the dry season (p < 0.01), the deaths were not seasonally related (p = 0.67). Contamination of otherwise potable sources of water, late presentation to the cholera treatment unit and low levels of knowledge about diseases need to be addressed in order to effectively control this disease in the community. Progress should also be made towards developing a suitable vaccine for the control of this internationally important public health disease so that the responsibility of its control is not left entirely to individuals and communities, particularly in developing countries.     

孕早期精神受刺激对出生儿单纯性先心病发病的影响

利用浙江省１３个市县０～２岁儿童先心病普查发现的单纯型先心病病例,采用１∶１配比病例对照研究,调查了３５１对先心病患儿和正常对照的父母孕期前后有关暴露情况。单因素及条件Ｌｏｇｉｓｔｉｃ回归结果显示,母亲孕早期精神受刺激可能增加先心病发病危险。结果提示：为减少先心病发病危险,孕早期应合理调整自己的心理状态,保持心情愉快。     

吸毒人群丙型肝炎病毒感染危险因素的研究

采用病例对照的研究方法,对广州市５３１名吸毒人员进行丙型肝炎病毒（ＨＣＶ）感染危险因素的调查,资料采用Ｌｏ－ｇｉｓｔｉｃ回归方法分析。结果表明：静脉吸毒（ＯＲ＝６．６８,Ｐ＜０．００１）,非固定婚外性伴侣（ＯＲ＝３．７１,Ｐ＜０．００１）,输液史（ＯＲ＝２．６４,Ｐ＜０．０１）和抗－ＨＢｃ阳性（ＯＲ＝１．７４,Ｐ＜０．０５）是ＨＣＶ感染独立的危险因素,而在性生活中使用避孕套（ＯＲ＝０．３７,Ｐ＜０．００５）是保护因素。提示广州市吸毒人群ＨＣＶ感染的主要途径是血液传播,同时性传播途径也起着重要的作用。