CTA在脑动静脉畸形出血急诊显微外科手术治疗中的指导意义

目的 探讨多层螺旋CT血管造影(CTA)存脑动静脉畸形(AVM)出血急诊显微外科手术治疗中的指导意义. 方法 同顾性分析四川省人民医院神经外科自2004年8月至2007年10月应用CTA指导急诊显微外科手术治疗脑AVM出血的21例患者的临床资料. 结果 本组21例脑AVM患者均行血肿清除及脑AVM的显微外科手术治疗,畸形血管伞切15例.部分切除5例,1例延髓血管畸形未能切除.痊愈6例(皮层下非功能区血肿5例,小脑血管畸形1例),好转14例(皮层下功能区血肿7例,小脑血肿4例,基底节区血管畸形3例),死亡1例(延髓血管畸形).结论 CTA可完成脑AVM的诊断,指导脑AVM出血的急诊显微外科手术治疗.     

脑动静脉畸形大量出血的急诊手术治疗

目的 探讨脑动静脉畸形(AVM)大量出血急诊手术治疗的有效性和安全性.方法 回顾性分析36例AVM大量出血急诊手术治疗的临床资料.结果 本组采用单纯脑内血肿清除者20例,脑内血肿清除同时切除AVM者16例,术后病理证实为AVM.所有病例术后病情稳定后均做全脑血管造影(DSA)检查,结果显示术中已切除AVM者未再发现AVM,未切除者均证实AVM存在.在未切除AVM的病例中,行二期手术切除者8例,血管内栓塞者7例,γ-刀治疗者3例,术后再出血死亡者2例.3个月后随访,恢复良好26例,中残4例,重残3例,植物生存1例.结论 脑动静脉畸形大量出血采用急诊手术清除脑内血肿是救治成功的关键,为患者生存和后续治疗提供条件,但手术风险较大,术中止血困难和术后再出血是死亡的主要原因.     

脑血管畸形急性出血并脑内血肿的手术治疗

目的 探讨脑动静脉畸形(AVM) 出血并颅内血肿形成的急诊手术问题.方法 37例CT示颅内血肿,怀疑AVM 出血,32例急诊手术前经MRA检查提示脑AVM21例,其中29例行血肿清除加AVM显微切除术,8例行单纯血肿清除术,10例行去骨瓣减压术.结果 死亡4例,存活33例中恢复优良21例,良7例,差5例. 29例术后复查DSA或MRA,20例AVM消失.结论 急诊显微外科手术治疗是AVM破裂出血首选治疗方法,能够提高脑AVM破裂出血的治愈率,降低致残率.MRA适合急诊术前检查,可快捷、安全显示AVM及主要供血动脉,指导制定手术方案.     

脑动静脉畸形手术治疗与血管内栓塞治疗

目的通过对81例脑动静脉畸形(AVM)患者分别进行直接手术切除和血管内栓塞治疗的总结,探讨AVM治疗手段的可行性和有效性。方法(1)直接手术23例,均为AVM合并脑内血肿而行急诊开颅血肿清除术 AVM切除术。(2)58例行血管内超选择栓塞术(NBCA胶),栓塞前行二维或三维DSA检查。结果直接手术组,术后复查头部MRI或DSA示病灶全切除12例,部分切除6例并在术后联合血管内栓塞达到痊愈,治愈率52.2%,病残率26.1%,死亡率21.7%。血管内栓塞组,以最后一期栓塞后的DSA资料统计栓塞程度,有49例达到完全栓塞,8例畸形血管团减少50%以上,1例减少50%以下。结论对脑AVM破裂出血且危及生命的应行急诊开颅血肿清除术并尽可能切除畸形血管团。小型AVM、单支供血AVM或Spetzler-Martin分级Ⅲ级以下的病例,追求一期完全栓塞是有可能的;Ⅲ级以上的脑AVM,采用分次、分期血管内栓塞可减少并发症和明显改善症状。因此,治疗脑AVM手段的选择应根据患者的具体情况而定。     

儿童脑动静脉畸形的显微手术治疗

目的 探讨儿童脑动静脉畸形(AVM)显微手术的方法、效果与注意事项;以及DSA复合手术室在手术治疗中的应用。方法 回顾性分析郑州大学第一附属医院神经外科2010年10月—2018年3月期间，行显微手术治疗的77例儿童(≤18岁)脑AVM患者的临床资料。其中，颅内出血者65例; 10例患者为局限性或全面性癫痫发作; 20例患者为肢体无力或感觉异常; 3例患者为单纯性头痛，无颅内出血; 3例患者为偶然发现。按照影像学Spetzler-Martin分级，Ⅰ级者20例，Ⅱ级33例，Ⅲ级18例，Ⅳ级5例，Ⅴ级1例。71例患者行单纯手术治疗，6例患者栓塞后手术。在DSA复合手术室手术的患者46例，在普通手术室手术患者31例。结果 本组患者均行显微手术切除AVM，术后65例患者预后良好; 12例患者预后不良，其中3例患者为术后新发神经功能障碍，其余患者在术后6个月早期随访时均较术前好转。复合手术室组患者的AVM切除率明显高于普通手术室组，差异有统计学意义(P 0. 05)。结论 显微手术切除是儿童脑AVM相对安全有效的治疗方法。DSA复合手术室可为脑AVM合并颅内出血患者提供术前、术中血管造影及手术切除的一站式治疗，从而提高畸形血管团的切除率，减少术后复发率。     

CTA在非高血压自发性脑内血肿急诊手术中的指导作用

目的 探讨头颅多层螺旋CT血管造影(CT angiography,CTA)检查在非高血压自发性脑内血肿急诊显微外科手术治疗中的应用价值.方法 对27例需行急诊手术血肿清除的非高血压自发性脑内血肿患者,术前行头颅CTA检查,根据CTA检查结果做急诊开颅显微外科手术治疗,并对CTA在手术中的指导作用进行分析.结果 27例头颅CTA检查中,动脉瘤6例,动静脉畸形14例,烟雾病3例,无明显血管异常4例.术中探查发现动脉瘤6例,均予瘤颈夹闭;动静脉畸形14例,其中全切除12例,部分切除2例;烟雾病3例,均单纯血肿清除;海绵状血管瘤3例,均全切除;无明显原发病变1例,单纯血肿清除.术后均行头颅DSA检查,动静脉畸形残留2例,予伽玛刀治疗,烟雾病3例,无明显血管异常22例.格拉斯哥预后评分(GOS):Ⅰ级8例,Ⅱ级14例,Ⅲ～Ⅳ级5例.随访0.5-2年无再出血.结论 头颅CTA能简便、快速、无创地明确非高血压自发性脑内血肿患者中的动脉瘤、动静脉畸形、烟雾病等病因,提供直观的三维形态及解剖定位,有利于一期手术清除血肿及消除病因,降低手术风险,对非高血压性自发性脑内血肿的急诊显微外科手术治疗具有重要的指导作用.     

脑动静脉畸形破裂急性出血期的显微手术治疗

目的探讨脑动静脉畸形破裂急性出血期的显微手术治疗的有效性和安全性。方法35例脑动静脉畸形患者中30例行血肿清除术．术中发现畸形血管团26例．其中19例行血肿清除加动静脉畸形显微切除术，11例行血肿清除加部分血管电凝术。16例因术中脑压较高行去骨瓣减压术；5例行单纯脑室内血肿外引流术。结果所有患者经病理和（或）DSA检查证实为脑动静脉畸形。急性期手术死亡3例。术后存活的32例患者均行DSA检查。脑动静脉畸形完全切除的21例，仍存在的11例。未切除的脑动静脉畸形根据Spetzle和Martin分级分为Ⅱ级3例．Ⅲ级5例，Ⅳ级3例。结论脑动静脉畸形破裂急性出血期的显微手术治疗是行之有效的方法。既清除血肿。又防止再出血和继发性脑血管痉挛的发生。为下一步治疗创造了良好的条件。     

脑动静脉畸形的显微手术体会

目的 探讨脑动静脉畸形(AVM)显微手术治疗的经验和技巧.方法 回顾性分析了近8年采用显微手术治疗的44例AVM患者的临床资料.结果 所有病人均进行了畸形血管团显微切除手术(合并有血肿的同时行血肿清除术),其中42例为全切除,2例为次全切除.术后病人都良好生存,其中1例病人术后早期出现阻塞性脑充血.结论 采用显微手术切除畸形血管团是根治AVM、预防出血的可靠方法,详尽的影像放射学资料是术前设计手术方案所必备的,熟练的显微手术操作技巧是手术成功的关键.     

CTA指导下脑动静脉畸形出血的显微手术治疗

目的探讨头颅CT血管造影（CTA）在脑动静脉畸形（AVM）出血患者显微手术中的作用。方法 2010年6月至2013年6月收治41例脑AVM出血患者,均行头颅CT、3D-CTA明确诊断,全部病例均于一期行显微手术。结果本组41例AVM出血后显微手术治疗均获得了成功,所有患者均一次性全部切除畸形血管团,效果满意。患者术后随访2月~3年,无死亡患者,无再次出血患者,未发生灌注压突破综合征。按日常生活能力（ADL）分级评价患者预后,ADLⅠ级36例,Ⅱ级5例。结论对颅内出血怀疑AVM出血者,尽快行头颅3D-CTA明确诊断,急诊一期手术治疗效果良好。     

脑动静脉畸形破裂出血急诊手术治疗

目的探讨脑动静脉畸形（AVM）破裂出血的术前诊断、急诊手术治疗及疗效。方法回顾性分析2008～2011年急诊开颅手术治疗17例NAVM出血患者临床资料。结果手术中判断病灶Spetzler分级：I级2例,Ⅱ级4例,Ⅲ级6例,IVY3例,V级2例。14例清除血肿同时切除病灶;术后新发癫痫4例,药物控制良好。术后随访6月～3年,10例预后良好,4例中残,3例重残。结论掌握脑AVM破裂出血的手术策略和显微外科技巧,若手术中条件允许,清除血肿同时切除病灶预后较好。     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Anticonvulsant Drugs and Cognitive Function: A Review of the Literature

Summary: Alterations of cognitive function are separate from disturbances of behavior seen in association with epilepsy. The nature of the cognitive disability may to a certain extent depend on the seizure type. Partial seizures, mainly derived from a temporal lobe focus, impair memory tasks, while generalized seizures seem to have more effect on attentional abilities. A number of studies, reviewed in this paper, suggest that anticonvulsant drugs further impair cognitive function. Maximal impairments are seen in patients receiving polytherapy: rationalization of polytherapy improves cognitive abilities. Studies in children and adults have allowed differentiation of the effects of various commonly used antiepileptic agents. Maximal cognitive deficits are seen with. phenytoin, while phenobarbital and sodium valproate induce moderate disturbances, and carbamazepine seems relatively free from such toxicity. Further research is needed on the interrelationship between types of seizure disorders, types of anticonvulsant medications, and cognitive function.