氧化应激与骨质疏松

骨质疏松是以骨组织退化、骨量减少，以及易发生骨折为特征的一种慢性骨病，破骨细胞和成骨细胞功能失衡是导致这一病理过程的直接原因。这两种细胞的分化异常在骨质疏松的发病机理中扮演重要角色，骨质疏松患者成骨细胞分化减少而破骨细胞分化增加。近年来氧化应激作为骨质疏松的一个危险因子已越来越受到重视。有研究表明，氧化应激状态能够抑制骨髓中成骨细胞的分化，同时刺激破骨细胞分化，促进了骨质疏松的发生发展。笔者就目前对氧化应激在骨质疏松发生发展中的作用的研究作一综述。     

氧化应激与骨质疏松

骨质疏松是以骨组织退化、骨量减少，以及易发生骨折为特征的一种慢性骨病，破骨细胞和成骨细胞功能失衡是导致这一病理过程的直接原因。这两种细胞的分化异常在骨质疏松的发病机理中扮演重要角色，骨质疏松患者成骨细胞分化减少而破骨细胞分化增加。近年来氧化应激作为骨质疏松的一个危险因子已越来越受到重视。有研究表明，氧化应激状态能够抑制骨髓中成骨细胞的分化，同时刺激破骨细胞分化，促进了骨质疏松的发生发展。笔者就目前对氧化应激在骨质疏松发生发展中的作用的研究作一综述。     

骨保护素和骨保护素配体在人骨髓基质细胞向成骨细胞分化过程中的表达

目的研究骨保护素和骨保护素配体在人骨髓基质细胞向成骨细胞诱导分化过程中的表达情况，探讨其在骨重建过程中的调节作用。方法实验中采用梯度离心法和酶消化法分别获得人骨髓基质细胞和成骨细胞，并将骨髓基质细胞向成骨细胞方向诱导分化。通过形态学观察、生化指标检测、细胞染色和矿化结节测定等方法，确定骨髓基质细胞的功能状态和分化程度。采用RT-PCR和Westem blot方法，检测骨髓基质细胞向成骨细胞分化过程中骨保护素和骨保护素配体的表达情况。结果获得的骨髓基质细胞和成骨细胞生长状态良好，生化指标稳定。骨髓基质细胞分化后，碱性磷酸酶分泌明显增加，可以产生大量的矿化结节，具有成熟成骨细胞的表型特征。RT-PCR和Western blot检测，在骨髓基质细胞向成骨细胞分化过程中，骨保护素在mRNA和蛋白质水平的表达明显升高，而骨保护素配体的表达则逐渐下降。细胞中OPG mRNA表达在第21天时达到最大，约为未分化时水平的2．5倍。而OPGLmRNA表达减少为未分化时1／2；细胞中OPG的蛋白质表达水平提高约为未分化细胞的6倍。统计学分析，P〈0．01，差异有显著性。结论在人骨髓基质细胞向成骨细胞分化过程中，骨保护素表达逐渐升高而骨保护素配体表达显著降低，两者比值的逐渐增大，从而发挥促进骨形成，抑制骨吸收的作用，这可能是协调骨重建周期有序进行的重要机制之一。     

骨髓腔内脂质代谢异常对原发性骨质疏松症的影响

骨髓腔内脂质代谢异常在骨质疏松症的发病中起重要作用。骨髓基质细胞是具有多向分化潜能的干细胞,在成脂诱导剂作用下可加速向脂肪细胞分化。过氧化物酶体增殖物活化受体γ和核心结合因子α1是骨髓基质细胞向脂肪细胞分化过程的关键,两者呈"此消彼长"关系。脂肪细胞不仅可抑制成骨细胞活动,还可促进破骨细胞形成和功能活化,从而引起成骨-破骨偶联失调,最终导致骨质疏松症。抑制骨髓基质细胞向脂肪细胞分化成为一种新的治疗骨质疏松症的途径。     

骨髓脂肪细胞与骨质疏松症

近年来，随着细胞分子生物学研究进展，骨髓基质干细胞（bone marrow stromall cell，BMS）分化方向，及其调控机制在原发性、继发性骨质疏松症发生机理中的意义引起高度关注。各种原因通过某种机制导致成骨细胞分化减少，脂肪细胞分化增加，脂肪细胞进一步刺激更多的造血干细胞，分化为破骨细胞，进而引起成骨细胞——破骨细胞的偶联失衡，最终导致骨丢失和骨质疏松。因此，骨髓脂肪细胞生成及其调控机制的阐明，对骨质疏松症的预防和治疗具有重要意义。     

破骨细胞骨吸收机制的研究进展

人体骨骼依赖于骨吸收和骨形成之间的动态平衡 ,当破骨细胞的骨吸收功能超过成骨细胞的骨形成作用后 ,这一平衡的失调将导致骨质疏松或骨质破坏。因妇女绝经、过量服用糖皮质激素等多种因素引起的骨质疏松 ,Ｐａｇｅｔ’ｓ病 ,以及癌症骨转移造成的骨破坏 ,都与破骨细胞异常活跃的分化增殖和骨吸收功能有关。因此 ,破骨细胞 (ｏｓｔｅｏｃｌａｓｔ,ＯＣ)是治疗上述疾病的靶细胞[1,2 ] 。1　破骨细胞分化形成的微环境ＯＣ是一种特殊类型的多核巨细胞 ,来源于ＣＤ3 4+ 的骨髓造血干细胞 ,其分化主要受骨髓基质细胞和成骨细胞所分泌的集落细胞…     

中药促进骨折愈合在细胞分子水平的研究进展

中药被广泛应用于治疗骨折和骨质疏松等骨科相关疾病,已有许多动物实验和临床试验证明中药,如淫羊藿、骨碎补等可刺激骨再生和抑制骨再吸收,最终促进骨折愈合。许多细胞实验证明这些中药成分可上调胞内成骨性转录因子和成骨相关基因产物表达,诱导前成骨细胞成骨分化和刺激成骨细胞增殖,促进骨结节形成和基质矿化。同时也可上调胞内破骨性转录因子和破骨相关基因产物表达,抑制前破骨细胞破骨分化和破骨细胞骨再吸收活性。此外这些中药成分还可影响胞内信号通路发挥以上相同的作用。由此发现前成骨细胞和前破骨细胞中的成骨性和破骨性转录因子、转录因子调节的基因表达和信号通路是中药促进骨折愈合的主要分子机制,也是目前中药促进骨折愈合的研究热点。     

机械刺激对成骨细胞影响的研究进展

骨质疏松的发病多由于破骨细胞的骨吸收大于成骨细胞的骨形成而造成的一种骨代谢性疾病。骨形成的过程包括骨吸收和骨形成,其中骨形成主要依靠成骨细胞,成骨细胞来源于骨髓的间充质干细胞,由骨髓间充质干细胞定向分化为骨祖细胞,后分化为成骨细胞前体,最后分化为成骨细胞。成骨细胞在骨形成中经历成骨细胞的增殖、细胞外基质成熟、细胞外基质矿化和成骨细胞凋亡四个阶段。不同的运动方式会对骨骼产生不同的力学刺激,力学刺激会使骨骼产生不同程度的机械应变。大量的研究表明,成骨细胞可感受这种刺激作用,并引起一系列不同变化。本文主要阐述不同形式的机械刺激(微重力、流体剪切力、压应力、牵拉力)对成骨细胞的形态、数量和分化趋势,蛋白以及基因表达水平等方面的影响,为运动疗法对骨质疏松的治疗、预防和促进骨骼发育提供更加可靠的理论依据。     

维生素K2（MK-7）防治骨质疏松的作用机制研究进展

维生素K2具有抗骨质疏松的骨骼健康效应。在维生素K2系列中MK-7的活性最强。经成骨细胞、破骨细胞培养的体外机制分析及去卵巢骨质疏松模型、去神经骨质疏松模型、悬吊骨质疏松模型、肥胖骨质疏松模型和临床研究,揭示MK-7抗骨质疏松的作用机制:①通过维生素K2依赖性蛋白的γ-羧基化途径,将骨钙素分子中的谷氨酸残基羧化;②通过刺激成骨细胞分化、调控骨细胞外基质矿化、上调骨标志物基因表达、抑制破骨细胞生成,促进骨形成和降低骨吸收。     

神经递质P物质含量减少可抑制成骨细胞分化并导致骨质疏松

目的研究神经递质P物质调控成骨细胞分化的分子途径，探讨神经损伤后导致废用性骨质疏松的发病机制。方法分离骨髓基质干细胞进行原代及传代培养；绘制细胞生长曲线并对培养细胞进行诱导，使其向成骨细胞分化，行碱性磷酸酶染色鉴定成骨细胞，分别采用P物质及其受体拮抗剂进行干预；抽提细胞总RNA，用RT—PCR检测Osterix基因的表达。结果骨髓基质干细胞在生长对数增殖期为4—6d，经碱性磷酸酶染色证实为成骨细胞。采用RT—PCR检测发现P物质受体拮抗剂干预成骨细胞分化，导致成骨细胞分化过程中重要的转录引子Osterix基因表达下调，从而抑制前成骨细胞向成骨细胞转化，进而导致骨重建的负向平衡，最终导致骨质疏松。结论P物质含量减少可导致前成骨细胞中转录因子Ostrix及Runx2基因表达下调，抑制其向成骨细胞分化。这可能是神经损伤后导致废用性骨质疏松的发病机制。     

Bone marrow stromal cell lines having high potential for osteoclast-supporting activity express PPARγ1 and show high potential for differentiation into adipocytes

Bone marrow stromal cells support osteoclast differentiation by expressing receptor activator of NF-kB ligand (RANKL). Although several bone marrow stromal cell lines have been established and characterized, the differentiation stage of the supporting cells for osteoclast differentiation remains unclear. We have established several bone marrow stromal cell lines from transgenic mice harboring the temperature-sensitive SV40 large T antigen. Some of these temperature-sensitive bone marrow stromal cell lines (TSB cell lines) support osteoclast differentiation and differentiate into osteoblasts, suggesting that osteoblast precursor cells support osteoclast differentiation. Here we show that the TSB cell lines that support osteoclast differentiation also expressed peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ1 (PPARγ1) and were able to differentiate into adipocytes. PPARγ1 is an alternatively spliced form of PPARγ that is responsible for the adipocyte differentiation and expressed in the adipocyte precursor cells. Immunofluorescence analysis of TSB cell lines and primary bone marrow stromal cells by use of anti-PPARγ and anti-RANKL antibodies showed that fluorescent signals for RANKL were observed in the cells that expressed PPARγ. Furthermore, activation of adipocyte differentiation by a PPARγ agonist led to decreased RANKL expression. These results demonstrate that PPARγ1-positive precursor cells for osteoblasts and adipocytes expressed RANKL and supported osteoclastogenesis.     

酒精对骨髓基质细胞增殖及分化的影响

目的 观察酒精对骨髓基质细胞增殖及分化的作用．探讨骨质疏松的病理学机理。方法 以0.09mol/L酒精加入骨髓基质细胞培养物中，测定增殖的骨髓基质细胞数及培养液中骨钙素含量。通过苏丹Ⅲ脂肪细胞染色计数观察酒精作用时间对脂肪细胞分化的影响。结果 实验组骨髓基质细胞数及培养液中骨钙素含量明显低于对照组，脂肪细胞的数量随酒精作用时间延长而增多。结论 酒精抑制骨髓基质细胞增殖及向成骨方向分化，促进其向脂肪细胞分化，这可能与酒精中毒引起继发性骨质疏松时骨量减少、髓内脂肪组织增多有关。     

β‐catenin promotes bone formation and suppresses bone resorption in postnatal growing mice

Genetic studies in the mouse have demonstrated multiple roles for β‐catenin in the skeleton. In the embryo, β‐catenin is critical for the early stages of osteoblast differentiation. Postnatally, β‐catenin in mature osteoblasts and osteocytes indirectly suppresses osteoclast differentiation. However, a direct role for β‐catenin in regulating osteoblast number and/or function specifically in the postnatal life has not been demonstrated. Addressing this knowledge gap is important because low‐density lipoprotein receptor‐related protein 5 (LRP5), a coreceptor for WNT signaling proposed to function through β‐catenin, controls osteoblast number and function in postnatal mice or humans. To overcome the neonatal lethality caused by embryonic deletion of β‐catenin in early‐stage osteoblast‐lineage cells, we use the Osx‐CreER^T2 mouse strain to remove β‐catenin in Osterix (Osx)‐expressing cells by administering tamoxifen (TM) temporarily to postnatal mice. Lineage‐tracing experiments in the long bones demonstrate that Osx‐CreER^T2 targets predominantly osteoblast‐lineage cells on the bone surface, but also transient progenitors that contribute to bone marrow stromal cells and adipocytes. Deletion of β‐catenin by this strategy greatly reduces the bone formation activity of the targeted osteoblasts. However, the targeted osteoblasts rapidly turn over and are replaced by an excessive number of non‐targeted osteoblasts, causing an unexpected increase in bone formation, but an even greater increase in osteoclast number and activity produces a net effect of severe osteopenia. With time, the mutant mice also exhibit a marked increase in bone marrow adiposity. Thus, β‐catenin in postnatal Osx‐lineage cells critically regulates bone homeostasis by promoting osteoblast activity and suppressing osteoblast turnover, while restraining osteoclast and marrow fat formation. © 2013 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.     

Imatinib promotes osteoblast differentiation by inhibiting PDGFR signaling and inhibits osteoclastogenesis by both direct and stromal cell-dependent mechanisms.

Several lines of evidence suggest that imatinib may affect skeletal tissue. We show that inhibition by imatinib of PDGFR signaling in osteoblasts activates osteoblast differentiation and inhibits osteoblast proliferation and that imatinib inhibits osteoclastogenesis by both stromal cell-dependent and direct effects on osteoclast precursors. INTRODUCTION: Imatinib mesylate, an orally active inhibitor of the c-abl, c-kit, and platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) tyrosine kinases, is in clinical use for the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) and gastrointestinal stromal cell tumors. Interruption of both c-kit and c-abl signaling in mice induces osteopenia, suggesting that imatinib might have adverse effects on the skeleton. However, biochemical markers of bone formation increase in patients with CML starting imatinib therapy, whereas bone resorption is unchanged, despite secondary hyperparathyroidism. We assessed the actions of imatinib on bone cells in vitro to study the cellular and molecular mechanism(s) underlying the skeletal effects we observed in imatinib-treated patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Osteoblast differentiation was assessed using a mineralization assay, proliferation by [(3)H]thymidine incorporation, and apoptosis by a TUNEL assay. Osteoclastogenesis was assessed using murine bone marrow cultures and RAW 264.7 cells. RT and multiplex PCR were performed on RNA prepared from human bone marrow samples, osteoblastic cells, and murine bone marrow cultures. Osteoprotegerin was measured by ELISA. RESULTS: The molecular targets of imatinib are expressed in bone cells. In vitro, imatinib increases osteoblast differentiation and prevents PDGF-induced inhibition of this process. Imatinib inhibits proliferation of osteoblast-like cells induced by serum and PDGF. In murine bone marrow cultures, imatinib inhibits osteoclastogenesis stimulated by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) and partially inhibits osteoclastogenesis induced by RANKL and macrophage-colony stimulating factor. Imatinib partially inhibited osteoclastogenesis in RANKL-stimulated RAW-264.7 cells. Treatment with imatinib increases the expression of osteoprotegerin in bone marrow from patients with CML and osteoblastic cells. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together with recent in vivo data, these results suggest a role for the molecular targets of imatinib in bone cell function, that inhibition by imatinib of PDGFR signaling in osteoblasts activates bone formation, and that the antiresorptive actions of imatinib are mediated by both stromal cell-dependent and direct effects on osteoclast precursors.     

Contrasting roles of leukemia inhibitory factor in murine bone development and remodeling involve region-specific changes in vascularization

We describe here distinct functions of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) in bone development/growth and adult skeletal homeostasis. In the growth plate and developing neonate bones, LIF deficiency enhanced vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels, enlarged blood vessel formation, and increased the formation of "giant" osteoclasts/chondroclasts that rapidly destroyed the mineralized regions of the growth plate and developing neonatal bone. Below this region, osteoblasts formed large quantities of woven bone. In contrast, in adult bone undergoing remodeling osteoclast formation was unaffected by LIF deficiency, whereas osteoblast formation and function were both significantly impaired, resulting in osteopenia. Consistent with LIF promoting osteoblast commitment, enhanced marrow adipocyte formation was also observed in adult LIF null mice, and adipocytic differentiation of murine stromal cells was delayed by LIF treatment. LIF, therefore, controls vascular size and osteoclast differentiation during the transition of cartilage to bone, whereas an anatomically separate LIF-dependent pathway regulates osteoblast and adipocyte commitment in bone remodeling.     

THSD4基因在小鼠间充质干细胞及MC3T3-E1细胞成骨分化中的作用

目的 探讨THSD4基因对小鼠间充质干细胞和MC3T3-E1细胞成骨分化的影响。方法 提取绝经后骨质疏松症患者的骨髓间充质干细胞进行基因测序分析,与骨关节炎患者的骨髓间充质干细胞进行比较,分析基因表达差异。通过提取不同分化阶段的小鼠骨髓间充质干细胞（M-BMSC）及MC3T3-E1细胞的mRNA来检测THSD4 基因以及成骨分化的标志性基因（ALP、Runx2、Osx）的表达水平。通过构建慢病毒表达载体来实现对M-BMSC及MC3T3-E1细胞中THSD4的敲减及过表达,并观察其对M-BMSC及MC3T3-E1细胞成骨分化能力的影响。结果 THSD4基因在绝经后骨质疏松症患者骨髓间充质干细胞中明显下调,且通过KEGG以及GO富集分析发现THSD4基因可能与PI3K-AKT信号通路及Wnt信号通路相关。随着成骨诱导分化时间的延长,THSD4 mRNA和成骨分化标志性基因（ALP、Runx2、Osx）mRNA在MC3T3-E1以及M-BMSC中表达量均逐渐增加。过表达THSD4可以增强MC3T3-E1细胞和M-BMSC的成骨分化能力,而敲减THSD4则减弱了MC3T3-E1细胞和M-BMSC的成骨分化能力。结论 THSD4基因在绝经后骨质疏松症患者骨髓间充质干细胞中明显下调,且THSD4基因可以增强MC3T3-E1细胞以及M-BMSC的成骨分化能力。     

Activation of protease-activated receptor-2 leads to inhibition of osteoclast differentiation.

PAR-2 is expressed by osteoblasts and activated by proteases present during inflammation. PAR-2 activation inhibited osteoclast differentiation induced by hormones and cytokines in mouse bone marrow cultures and may protect bone from uncontrolled resorption. INTRODUCTION: Protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR-2), which is expressed by osteoblasts, is activated specifically by a small number of proteases, including mast cell tryptase and factor Xa. PAR-2 is also activated by a peptide (RAP) that corresponds to the "tethered ligand" created by cleavage of the receptor's extracellular domain. The effect of activating PAR-2 on osteoclast differentiation was investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Mouse bone marrow cultures have been used to investigate the effect of PAR-2 activation on osteoclast differentiation induced by parathyroid hormone (PTH), 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1,25(OH)2D3], and interleukin-11 (IL-11). Expression of PAR-2 by mouse bone marrow, mouse bone marrow stromal cell-enriched cultures, and the RAW264.7 osteoclastogenic cell line was demonstrated by RT-PCR. RESULTS: RAP was shown to inhibit osteoclast differentiation induced by PTH, 1,25(OH)2D3, or IL-11. Semiquantitative RT-PCR was used to investigate expression of mediators of osteoclast differentiation induced by PTH, 1,25(OH)2D3, or IL-11 in mouse bone marrow cultures and primary calvarial osteoblast cultures treated simultaneously with RAP. In bone marrow and osteoblast cultures treated with PTH, 1,25(OH)2D3, or IL-11, RAP inhibited expression of RANKL and significantly suppressed the ratio of RANKL:osteoprotegerin expression. Activation of PAR-2 led to reduced expression of prostaglandin G/H synthase-2 in bone marrow cultures treated with PTH, 1,25(OH)2D3, or IL-11. RAP inhibited PTH- or 1,25(OH)2D3-induced expression of IL-6 in bone marrow cultures. RAP had no effect on osteoclast differentiation in RANKL-treated RAW264.7 cells. CONCLUSION: These observations indicate that PAR-2 activation inhibits osteoclast differentiation by acting on cells of the osteoblast lineage to modulate multiple mediators of the effects of PTH, 1,25(OH)2D3, and IL-11. Therefore, the role of PAR-2 in bone may be to protect it from uncontrolled resorption by limiting levels of osteoclast differentiation.     

Microtubule assembly affects bone mass by regulating both osteoblast and osteoclast functions: Stathmin deficiency produces an osteopenic phenotype in mice

Cytoskeleton microtubules regulate various cell signaling pathways that are involved in bone cell function. We recently reported that inhibition of microtubule assembly by microtubule‐targeting drugs stimulates osteoblast differentiation and bone formation. To further elucidate the role of microtubules in bone homeostasis, we characterized the skeletal phenotype of mice null for stathmin, an endogenous protein that inhibits microtubule assembly. In vivo micro–computed tomography (µCT) and histology revealed that stathmin deficiency results in a significant reduction of bone mass in adult mice concurrent with decreased osteoblast and increased osteoclast numbers in bone tissues. Phenotypic analyses of primary calvarial cells and bone marrow cells showed that stathmin deficiency inhibited osteoblast differentiation and induced osteoclast formation. In vitro overexpression studies showed that increased stathmin levels enhanced osteogenic differentiation of preosteoblast MC3T3‐E1 cells and mouse bone marrow–derived cells and attenuated osteoclast formation from osteoclast precursor Raw264.7 cells and bone marrow cells. Results of immunofluorescent studies indicated that overexpression of stathmin disrupted radial microtubule filaments, whereas deficiency of stathmin stabilized the microtubule network structure in these bone cells. In addition, microtubule‐targeting drugs that inhibit microtubule assembly and induce osteoblast differentiation lost these effects in the absence of stathmin. Collectively, these results suggest that stathmin, which alters microtubule dynamics, plays an essential role in maintenance of postnatal bone mass by regulating both osteoblast and osteoclast functions in bone. © 2011 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research     

Emodin Regulates Bone Remodeling by Inhibiting Osteoclastogenesis and Stimulating Osteoblast Formation

Bone remodeling, a physiological process in which new bone is formed by osteoblasts and the preexisting bone matrix is resorbed by osteoclasts, is vital for the maintenance of healthy bone tissue in adult humans. Imbalances in this process can cause various pathological conditions, including osteoporosis. Emodin, a naturally occurring anthraquinone derivative found in Asian herbal medicines, has numerous beneficial pharmacologic effects, including anticancer and antidiabetic activities. However, the effect of emodin on the regulation of osteoblast and osteoclast activity has not yet been investigated. We show here that emodin is a potential target for osteoporosis therapeutics, as treatment with this agent enhances osteoblast differentiation and bone growth and suppresses osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption. In this study, emodin suppressed receptor activator of nuclear factor‐κB (NF‐κB) ligand (RANKL)‐induced osteoclast differentiation of bone marrow macrophages (BMMs) and the bone‐resorbing activity of mature osteoclasts by inhibiting RANKL‐induced NF‐κB, c‐Fos, and NFATc1 expression. Emodin also increased ALP, Alizarin Red‐mineralization activity, and the expression of osteoblastogenic gene markers, such as Runx2, osteocalcin (OCN), and ALP in mouse calvarial primary osteoblasts, as well as activated the p38‐Runx2 pathway, which enhanced osteoblast differentiation. Moreover, mice treated with emodin showed marked attenuation of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‐induced bone erosion and increased bone‐forming activity in a mouse calvarial bone formation model based on micro‐computed tomography and histologic analysis of femurs. Our findings reveal a novel function for emodin in bone remodeling, and highlight its potential for use as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of osteoporosis that promotes bone anabolic activity and inhibits osteoclast differentiation. © 2014 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.     

Effects of geranylgeranoic acid in bone: induction of osteoblast differentiation and inhibition of osteoclast formation.

Retinoids are known to be of special importance for normal bone growth and development. Recently, we reported that retinoids not only induced osteoblast differentiation, but also inhibited osteoclast formation in vitro. In this study, we examined the osteogenic effects of geranylgeranoic acid (GGA), a chemically synthesized acyclic retinoid, in bone in vitro and in vivo. GGA not only suppressed proliferation of osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells, but also up-regulated differentiation markers of osteoblasts such as alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and expression of osteopontin (OP) messenger RNA (mRNA). In contrast, GGA inhibited osteoclast formation induced by 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1alpha,25(OH)2D3] in cocultures of mouse bone marrow cells and primary osteoblasts. Treatment of stromal ST2 cells with GGA restored the 1alpha,25(OH)2D3- or prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)-induced suppression of osteoprotegerin (OPG) mRNA expression. GGA inhibited osteoclast formation induced by macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and soluble receptor activator of nuclear factor kappaB ligand (sRANKL) in the culture of bone marrow macrophages. Thus, it is likely that GGA inhibits osteoclast formation by affecting both osteoblasts and osteoclast progenitors in the coculture system. Furthermore, in vivo, GGA increased bone mineral density (BMD) of total as well as distal femur in a P6 strain of senescence-accelerated mice (SAMP6). These results indicate that GGA increases bone mass by maintaining a positive balance of bone turnover by inducing osteoblast differentiation and suppressing osteoclast formation.