The conflation of gender and sex: Gaps and opportunities in HIV data among transgender women and MSM

ABSTRACT

Historically, HIV studies have conflated men who have sex with men (MSM) with transgender (trans) women, explicitly excluded trans individuals, or included sample sizes of trans people that are too small to reach meaningful conclusions. Despite the heavy burden of HIV among trans women, conflation of this population with MSM has limited the information available on the social and behavioural factors that increase HIV vulnerability among trans women and how these factors may differ from MSM. Using data sets from quantitative studies among MSM (n?=?645) and trans women (n?=?89), as well as qualitative in-depth interviews with 30 trans women in Baltimore, we explore what these data tell us about similarities and differences in HIV vulnerability between the two groups and where they leave gaps in our understanding. We conclude with implications for data collection and intervention development.     

Structural and environmental factors are associated with internalised homonegativity in men who have sex with men: Findings from the European MSM Internet Survey (EMIS) in 38 countries

Internalised homonegativity refers to a gay person's negative feelings about homosexuality and is believed to stem from negative societal stereotypes and attitudes towards homosexuality. Surprisingly, little research has centred on this link. In this research, we aimed to examine the associations between internalised homonegativity and structural forces, cultural influence, and access to sexual health promotion measures among a sample of 144,177 men who have sex with men (MSM) in 38 European countries. Participants were recruited as part of the European MSM Internet Survey (EMIS) during 2010. It was a self-completion, multilingual Internet-based survey for men living in Europe who have sex with men and/or feel attracted to men. Assumed causal relations were tested through multiple regression models. Variables at the structure of rule-systems (macro-level) that were significantly and negatively associated with internalised homonegativity were the presence of laws recognising same-sex relationships and same-sex adoption. In the meso-level model, greater proportions of the population expressing that they would not like to have homosexuals as neighbours predicted higher internalised homonegativity. In the last model, five variables were significantly and negatively associated with internalised homonegativity: being exposed to HIV/STI information for MSM, access to HIV testing, access to STI testing, access to condoms, and experience of gay-related hostility. In turn, men who had tested for HIV in the past year evidenced lower internalised homonegativity. This is the largest and certainly most geographically diverse study to date to examine structural and environmental predictors of internalised homonegativity among MSM. Our results show that one insidious consequence of society's stigma towards homosexuals is the internalisation of that stigma by gay and bisexual men themselves, thus, drawing attention to the importance of promoting social equity for self-acceptance around gay identity in building a positive sense of self.     

Syndemics and HIV-related sexual risk among men who have sex with men in India: influences of stigma and resilience

Using syndemics theory as a framework, we explored the experience of men who have sex with men in India in relation to four syndemic conditions (depression, alcohol use, internalised homonegativity and violence victimisation) and to understand their resilience resources. Five focus groups were conducted among a purposive sample of diverse men along with seven key informant interviews with HIV service providers. Participants’ narratives suggested various pathways by which syndemic conditions interact with one another to sequentially or concurrently increase HIV risk. Experiences of discrimination and violence from a range of perpetrators (family, ruffians and police) contributed to internalised homonegativity and/or depression, which in turn led some men to use alcohol as a coping strategy. Stigma related to same-sex sexuality, gender non-conformity and sex work contributed to the production of one or more syndemic conditions. While rejection by family and male regular partners contributed to depression/alcohol use, support from family, regular partners and peers served as resources of resilience. In India, HIV prevention and health promotion efforts among men who have sex with men could be strengthened by multi-level multi-component interventions to reduce intersectional/intersecting stigma, address syndemic conditions and foster resilience – especially by promoting family acceptance and peer support.     

An exploration of religion and spirituality among young,HIV-infected gay and bisexual men in the USA

Although religion and spirituality can promote healthy behaviours and mental well-being, negative religious experiences may harm sexual minority men’s health. Despite increasing vulnerability to HIV infection among young gay and bisexual men, few studies examine how religion and spirituality might affect them. To this end, we interviewed young gay and bisexual men who were diagnosed with HIV infection during January 2006–June 2009. Questionnaires assessed religious service attendance, disclosure of sexuality within religious communities, and beliefs about homosexuality being sinful. A subset described religious and spiritual experiences in qualitative interviews. We calculated the prevalence of religion- and spirituality-related factors and identified themes within qualitative interviews. Among men completing questionnaires, 66% currently attended religious services, 16% believed they could disclose their sexuality at church, and 37% believed homosexuality was sinful. Participants who completed qualitative interviews commonly discussed religious attendance and negative experiences within religious settings. They often expressed their spirituality through prayer, and some used it to cope with adverse experiences. These data suggest that religion and spirituality are notable factors that shape young, HIV-infected gay and bisexual men’s social contexts. Programmes and interventions that constructively engage with religious institutions and are sensitive to spiritual beliefs may promote these men’s health.     

Syndemics of depression,alcohol use,and victimisation,and their association with HIV-related sexual risk among men who have sex with men and transgender women in India

We examined the presence and co-occurrence of psychosocial health conditions (depression, frequent alcohol use, and victimisation) among men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender (TG) women in India, and their cumulative association with sexual risk. A survey questionnaire was administered among a convenience sample of 600 participants (MSM?=?300; TG women?=?300) recruited through six non-governmental organisations in four states. Prevalences of the number of psychosocial health conditions among MSM were: none?=?31.3%, one?=?43%, two?=?20%, and three?=?5.7%; and among TG women: none?=?9%; one?=?35.33%, two?=?38.33%, and three?=?17.33%. In bivariate and multivariate models, these conditions were positively and additively related to sexual risk, providing evidence for a syndemic of psychosocial health conditions among MSM and TG women and their synergistic effect on sexual risk. In addition to the number of syndemic conditions, resilient coping and social support were significant predictors of sexual risk among MSM and TG women, respectively. HIV preventive interventions in India should screen for and address co-occurring psychosocial health conditions – experiences of violence, mental health issues, and alcohol use – among MSM and TG women.     

Homonegativity,Substance Use,Sexual Risk Behaviors,and HIV Status in Poor and Ethnic Men Who Have Sex with Men in Los Angeles

This study evaluates associations between internalized homonegativity and demographic factors, drug use behaviors, sexual risk behaviors, and HIV status among men who have sex with men (MSM) and with men and women (MSM/W). Participants were recruited in Los Angeles County using respondent-driven sampling (RDS) and completed the Internalized Homonegativity Inventory (IHNI) and questionnaires on demographic and behavioral factors. Biological samples were tested for HIV and for recent cocaine, methamphetamine, and heroin use. The 722 MSM and MSM/W participants were predominantly African American (44%) and Hispanic (28%), unemployed (82%), homeless (50%), and HIV positive (48%) who used drugs in the past 6 months (79.5%). Total and Personal Homonegativity, Gay Affirmation, and Morality of Homosexuality IHNI scores were significantly higher for African American men than for other ethnicities, for MSM/W than for MSM, for recent cocaine users than for recent methamphetamine users, and for HIV-seronegative men than for HIV-seropositive men. Linear regression showed the Gay Affirmation scale significantly and inversely correlated with the number of sexual partners when controlling for effects of ethnicity/race and sexual identification, particularly for men who self-identified as straight. Highest IHNI scores were observed in a small group of MSM/W (n?=?62) who never tested for HIV. Of these, 26% tested HIV positive. Findings describe ways in which internalized homophobia is a barrier to HIV testing and associated HIV infection and signal distinctions among participants in this sample that can inform targeted HIV prevention efforts aimed at increasing HIV testing.     

Knowledge and willingness to use pre-exposure prophylaxis among men who have sex with men in Northeastern Brazil

Few studies evaluate knowledge and willingness to use pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) among men who have sex with men (MSM) in middle-income countries. Brazil added PrEP to public drug formularies in December 2017, but little is known about local knowledge and attitudes about PrEP among MSM outside metropolitan areas in Southern Brazil. The cross-sectional HIV Surveillance Survey Project in Brazil estimates HIV and STD prevalence among MSM in 12 state capitals. Among 32 participants at the Salvador, Bahia study site, we used qualitative interviews to assess knowledge, willingness, and barriers to PrEP use among MSM; few MSM had previous knowledge of PrEP and were willing to use PrEP. Clinical, behavioural, social, and structural factors influencing participants’ knowledge and willingness to take PrEP included concerns about efficacy and side effects, access to culturally congruent services for MSM, and stigma. Some participants reported that learning about PrEP online positively influenced their willingness to use PrEP. Participants’ opinions about PrEP’s contribution to risk compensation varied. Interventions to provide culturally congruent care and destigmatise PrEP for MSM at high risk for HIV acquisition, particularly those conducted collaboratively with Brazil’s civil society movement, may enhance the public health effort to expand access to PrEP in Brazil.     

The role of the Black Church in the lives of young Black men who have sex with men

In the USA, the Black Church is among the most important institutions in the Black community, offering numerous spiritual, social and health benefits. Yet, the presence of homonegativity in many Black Churches may mitigate those effects for gay Black youth. This research examines the role of the Church in the lives of gay and bisexual Black youth to understand how they reconcile any tension between their religious and sexual identities. Through interviews with pastors of Black churches (n = 21) and young Black men who have sex with men (n = 30), we explored homonegativity and young men’s experiences within the Black Church. Findings reveal that despite the prevalence of homonegativity within Black churches, religious involvement remains important for young men and many remain involved in non-affirming churches. The importance of the Church for young men stems from their significant involvement as youth and the integration of religion, family and community. Young men may not be able to leave their religious homes as readily as other gay youth given the cultural relevance of the Church. As a result, young men made attempts to conceal their sexuality in church to avoid shame and gossip and find opportunities to balance their sexuality and religiosity.     

Factors associated with a drive for muscularity among gay and bisexual men

Among gay and bisexual men, body dissatisfaction can manifest itself in the form of a desire for increased muscularity. Possibly in response to homophobia, the socio-sexual culture of gay and bisexual men privileges muscularity and may help to perpetuate a sense of body dissatisfaction. Little is known about factors associated with a drive for muscularity among gay and bisexual men. This study recruited participants (n?=?400) at Toronto's 2008 lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender festival to provide data used to examine the relationship between a drive for muscularity and demographics (age, race, education, HIV status), psychological factors (depression, disordered eating, internalised homophobia, substance use), body mass, a history of childhood sexual abuse and sexual risk. Multivariate analyses revealed that a drive for muscularity was associated with age, disordered eating, depression, sexual risk and internalised homonegativity. These findings can be used to advance the health and wellbeing of gay and bisexual men, particularly interventions designed to mitigate the effects of internalised homonegativity and policies aimed at reducing homophobia.     

Homonegativity, Substance Use, Sexual Risk Behaviors, and HIV Status in Poor and Ethnic Men Who Have Sex with Men in Los Angeles

This study evaluates associations between internalized homonegativity and demographic factors, drug use behaviors, sexual risk behaviors, and HIV status among men who have sex with men (MSM) and with men and women (MSM/W). Participants were recruited in Los Angeles County using respondent-driven sampling (RDS) and completed the Internalized Homonegativity Inventory (IHNI) and questionnaires on demographic and behavioral factors. Biological samples were tested for HIV and for recent cocaine, methamphetamine, and heroin use. The 722 MSM and MSM/W participants were predominantly African American (44%) and Hispanic (28%), unemployed (82%), homeless (50%), and HIV positive (48%) who used drugs in the past 6 months (79.5%). Total and Personal Homonegativity, Gay Affirmation, and Morality of Homosexuality IHNI scores were significantly higher for African American men than for other ethnicities, for MSM/W than for MSM, for recent cocaine users than for recent methamphetamine users, and for HIV-seronegative men than for HIV-seropositive men. Linear regression showed the Gay Affirmation scale significantly and inversely correlated with the number of sexual partners when controlling for effects of ethnicity/race and sexual identification, particularly for men who self-identified as straight. Highest IHNI scores were observed in a small group of MSM/W (n = 62) who never tested for HIV. Of these, 26% tested HIV positive. Findings describe ways in which internalized homophobia is a barrier to HIV testing and associated HIV infection and signal distinctions among participants in this sample that can inform targeted HIV prevention efforts aimed at increasing HIV testing.     

Survival now versus survival later: immediate and delayed HIV risk assessment among young Jamaican men who have transactional sex with men

This study explored the experiences of young Jamaican men who have sex with men who engaged in transactional sex as a result of homelessness, family neglect or limited financial resources. It further examined the circumstances that affect their immediate or delayed decisions around sexual risk and increased vulnerability for HIV infection. Barriers experienced when accessing condoms, healthcare, HIV testing and other prevention services are also described. Twenty in-depth interviews and one focus group with 10 participants in various parishes in Jamaica were conducted. Findings from this study reveal how stigma and discrimination in the form of pervasive homophobia-influenced participation in the street economy via transactional sex. Socio-structural factors at family and commity level led to diminished social/economic prospects, which extended into adulthood. Sexual decision making was based on immediate needs for protection, food or shelter; concerns about acquiring HIV were considered only after meeting those immediate needs. Future HIV prevention strategies must take seriously the socio-structural factors that influence HIV risk behaviours among young men who have sex with men in Jamaica.     

‘HIV and work don't go together’: Employment as a social determinant of HIV outcomes among men who have sex with men and transgender women in the Dominican Republic

Men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender women are disproportionately affected by HIV in the Dominican Republic. Little is known about their experiences living with HIV as a chronic condition. We explored employment as a social determinant of well-being with HIV. We conducted 42 qualitative in-depth interviews with MSM (n?=?16) and transgender women (n?=?5) living with HIV; each participant completed 2 interviews to facilitate depth and iterative analysis. We used narrative analysis and systematic coding to identify salient themes related to employment and the HIV experience and developed a conceptual model of the pathways between HIV stigma, unemployment, and HIV outcomes. Early life experiences, including rejection from families and school, resulted in limited work opportunities, especially among transgender women. Following HIV diagnosis, participants across all socio-economic levels lost jobs and/or were unable to get jobs due to illegal HIV testing and HIV stigma and discrimination. Not being able to work impacted mental health, engagement in HIV care, and overall well-being. We conclude that lack of employment is a salient concern among MSM and transgender women living with HIV. Holistic, multi-level programmes that address illegal HIV testing and discriminatory hiring practices are urgently needed to facilitate engagement in care and long-term well-being.     

Stigma matters: HIV and HIV risk perception among men who have sex with men in Serbia; a qualitative study

As a social determinant of health, stigma is a major barrier to health care access, illness management and completing the treatment. It is attributed both to HIV as a health condition and to the populations at risk of being infected with it. In Serbia, HIV is associated with men who have sex with men (MSM), with a noticeable stigma towards them. Drawing upon a qualitative cross-sectional study, conducted in three Serbian cities, we explore the MSM’s perception of HIV in the context of that social stigma. Using a respondent-driven sampling approach, 62 targeted MSM respondents participated in focus groups discussions and in-depth interviews. We found that the participants’ understandings of the HIV infection, risks and prevention are shaped by stigma. Those MSM who resisted stigma relativised the HIV risk, associating it with the general population and HIV-positive MSMs, believing that HIV, perceived as a chronical illness, was unjustly related to MSM. As one of the main preventive measures, serosorting was based on alleged HIV-positive statuses of potential sexual partners. HIV-negative participants described perceiving HIV-positive MSM as the ones responsible for spreading the virus, since they were concealing their positive status. As a response to stigma, MSM tended to challenge the HIV discourse, shifting it away from MSM onto the general (male) population and HIV positive MSM. Our analysis suggests that stigma resistance may make MSM more susceptible to taking risks. HIV prevention programmes should take the social context of MSM into account and target MSM-related stigma.     

男男性行为者抑郁症状流行病学研究现状

男男性行为者抑郁症状的发生率较高,国内外对抑郁症状相关因素的研究主要关注男男性行为者性取向、HIV感染、性行为特征,非自愿性行为/童年期性虐待、社会支持等方面.不同研究报道的抑郁症状发生率变异范围较大,可能与抑郁症状评定工具、研究对象的情况及抽样方法有关.本文对男男性行为者抑郁症状及其影响因素的研究进行综述,为深入研究男男性行为者抑郁症状提供线索和依据.     

天津市浴池男男性行为人群HIV新发感染队列研究

目的 通过队列研究分析天津市浴池MSM人群HIV新发感染状况及影响因素,为在MSM人群中开展HIV感染的预防和干预提供依据。方法 以经常光顾天津市某同性恋浴池、曾发生过男男性行为的MSM为研究对象,于2011年4月至2013年9月采用同伴推动法招募研究对象,建立MSM人群开放性队列,完成HIV检测和基线调查,并进行跟踪随访检测。调查内容包括人口学特征、艾滋病相关知识知晓情况、艾滋病相关行为情况等信息。以随访过程中"HIV阳转"为结局因变量,同时,将从研究对象进入队列到出现HIV阳转的时间为时间因变量,应用Cox比例风险模型进行浴池型MSM人群HIV新发感染影响因素的分析。结果 调查期间符合条件的研究对象733例,共新发HIV感染59例,队列随访累积观察时间为7 384.9人月,HIV新发感染率为9.59/100人年(95%CI:7.3/100人年~11.92/100人年)。多因素 Cox 回归分析显示,天津市浴池型MSM人群的危险因素包括:年龄较低者相比较年长者艾滋病知识知晓率低者(HR=1.82,95%CI:1.03~2.66)相比较知晓率高者,多性伴者(HR=1.74,95%CI:1.26~2.58)相比较固定性伴者,正在感染梅毒者(HR=2.36,95%CI:1.31~3.27),均易发生HIV的新发感染。结论 同性恋浴池MSM人群中年龄较低、艾滋病知识知晓率低、多性伴、梅毒感染为该人群HIV新发感染的危险因素,应针对危险因素加强浴池型MSM人群HIV新发感染的监测和干预。     

男男性接触人群艾滋病干预效果分析与探讨

目的了解浙江省"全国男男性行为人群艾滋病综合防治试点"项目艾滋病预防干预效果,为寻找和完善男男性行为人群(MSM)艾滋病预防干预方法提供依据。方法在接受项目调查的MSM中,通过问卷中设置的变量挑选出先后接受过第一、二轮和第二、三轮调查的MSM(项目调查分三轮),并通过ID编号实现自身对照,比较干预前后MSM艾滋病/性病感染、行为、知识等情况,综合分析预防干预效果。结果接受第一、二轮调查的157名MSM中,最近6个月:6.25%的人出现性病症状(P<0.05),分别有2.55%、5.04%的人HIV抗体、梅毒抗体发生阳转(梅毒抗体阳转P<0.05)。接受第二、三轮调查的83名MSM中,最近6个月:15.07%的人发生性病症状(P<0.05),分别有1.23%、5.41%的人发生HIV抗体、梅毒抗体阳转。结论试点项目MSM艾滋病干预效果有待提高,有效的干预方法尚待进一步探索和完善。     

哈尔滨市男男性行为人群HIV新发感染及失访影响因素分析

目的 了解黑龙江省哈尔滨市MSM人群中HIV新发感染率及失访影响因素。方法 2013年4－6月在哈尔滨市MSM人群中招募661人进行前瞻性调查,分别于6、12、18个月进行随访,入组及随访时均对调查对象进行面对面问卷调查,并采集静脉血进行HIV抗体检测,计算发病密度。利用logistic回归模型探讨MSM人群队列研究中失访的影响因素。结果 随访至18个月,调查对象HIV发病密度为4.23/100人年(95%CI:2.91/100人年～5.93/100人年),队列失访率为15.4%。未接受过干预、高年龄组、低学历者及非男男同志社区组织的研究对象易失访。结论 MSM人群HIV新发感染率较高,积极依托社区组织能提高该人群随访率。     

Latino men who have sex with men and HIV in the rural south-eastern USA: findings from ethnographic in-depth interviews

A community-based participatory research partnership explored HIV risk and potentially effective intervention characteristics to reduce exposure and transmission among immigrant Latino men who have sex with men living in the rural south-eastern USA. Twenty-one participants enrolled and completed a total of 62 ethnographic in-depth interviews. Mean age was 31 (range 18–48) years and English-language proficiency was limited; 18 participants were from Mexico. Four participants reported having sex with men and women during the past three months; two participants self-identified as male-to-female transgender. Qualitative themes that emerged included a lack of accurate information about HIV and prevention; the influence of social-political contexts to sexual risk; and barriers to healthcare services. We also identified eight characteristics of potentially effective interventions for HIV prevention. Our findings suggest that socio-political contexts must be additional targets of change to reduce and eliminate HIV health disparities experienced by immigrant Latino men who have sex with men.     

北京市男男性行为者HIV快速检测及检测服务方式需求的调查研究

目的了解北京市男男性行为者(MSM)对HIV快速检测与HIV检测服务方式的需求情况。方法 2012年8至10月,在北京对262名MSM进行横断面问卷调查;统计分析使用SAS 9.2统计软件包,影响因素分析采用logistic回归模型分析,P<0.05的变量纳入多因素logistic回归模型。结果 262名MSM中,分别有125(47.71%)、68(25.95%)和69(26.34%)人选择血液快检、唾液快检和ELISA检测;154(58.78%)、68(25.95%)和40(15.27%)人选择在医院VCT、疾控中心VCT和在家进行检测。多因素logistic回归分析结果显示,年龄≤25岁(AOR:2.62,95%CI:1.24～5.55),月收入>3000元(AOR:2.65,95%CI:1.43～4.90),曾经听说过HIV快速检测(AOR:2.89,95%CI:1.08～7.71)是MSM选择HIV快速检测的独立影响因素。结论积极推广HIV快检、加强医院VCT门诊服务建设以满足MSM对HIV检测服务的需求,从而扩大MSM人群HIV检测的覆盖面。     

深圳市男男性行为人群相关高危行为干预及其影响因素研究

目的 了解深圳市男男性行为者(MSM)安全套使用及其相关影响因素.方法 2009年8-11月招募深圳市同性恋聚集地的同性接触人群作为访谈对象,采用统一调查表进行问卷调查.对调查的273名MSM进行人口学和行为特征分析;以近6个月发生性行为时不能坚持每次使用安全套的行为为应变量,而各类影响因素为自变量进行logistic回归分析.结果 调查对象来自全国各地,绝大部分为青壮年,平均年龄27.9岁,以未婚居多,文化程度较高,但对艾滋病知识缺乏;安全套使用率低,过去1年每次性行为均使用安全套的比例为20.5%;与同性发生性行为不使用安全套的原因主要是对方为"稳定的性伴和爱人"、"年轻,看起来没病"、"没有滥交".结论 深圳市MSM危险性行为普遍存在,安全套使用情况和影响因素各不相同,艾滋病极有可能在该人群中流行.

Abstract：

Objective To learn the condom-use and it's associated factors among men who have sex with men(MSM)in Shenzhen,so as to provide scientific basis for the development of prevention and control program.Methods Cross-sectional survey was conducted with standardized questionnaire used on individual case.Associated factors with behavior of not persistent condom use were analyzed,using logistic regression method as dependent variable and associated factors with behaviors as independent variables.Results Most of the MSM were young,with average age as 27.9.coming from 26 provinces of China.Only 20.5 percent of the participants were persistently using condoms every time with their sex partners in the past year. The main reasons of not constantly using condom with their male sex partners were having fixed partners,being young,healthy and being faithful.Conclusion High risk sexual behaviors and the low rate of condom-use among MSM might serve as potential risks for HIV epidemics.Data on the rate of condom use and the influencing factors among MSM varied for different sexual partners,suggested that targeted prevention measures should be conducted.