NLS-RARα通过激活AKT调节白血病NB4细胞的增殖

目的构建携带NLS-RARα的重组慢病毒,感染白血病NB4细胞并观察其对NB4细胞增殖和AKT蛋白的影响。方法以质粒p CMV-HA-NLS-RARα为模板,PCR扩增NLS-RARα基因,将其亚克隆到慢病毒表达载体质粒LV5中,经DNA测序鉴定重组载体,用4质粒系统共转染293T细胞,收集病毒上清,浓缩鉴定,测定重组慢病毒的滴度;重组慢病毒感染NB4细胞,经过嘌呤霉素筛选获得稳定转染NLS-RARα的NB4细胞株;CCK-8法检测NLSRARα对NB4细胞增殖的影响;流式细胞术检测细胞周期和感染效率;Western blot分别检测NLS-RARα、t-AKT和p-AKT的表达。结果 NLS-RARα克隆入LV5的多克隆位点,慢病毒浓缩后滴度为2×108Tu/m L;感染效率为86.54%;NLS-RARα能够明显促进细胞增殖,S期细胞增多,G1和G2期细胞减少;NLS-RARα基因在NB4细胞中稳定的表达,同时p-AKT明显增高,用PI3K抑制剂LY294002处理后p-AKT明显降低。结论 NLS-RARα通过激活AKT促进白血病NB4细胞的增殖。     

重组慢病毒表达PML核定位信号缺失体抑制急性早幼粒白血病细胞系c-Myc蛋白表达

目的构建携带PML(ΔNLS)基因的重组慢病毒,研究其对NB4细胞中c-Myc蛋白表达的影响。方法以质粒p CMV-HA-PML(ΔNLS)为模板,PCR扩增PML(ΔNLS)基因,克隆入慢病毒载体LV5-EF1a-GFP/puro,与p Helper 1.0和p Helper 2.0共转染293T细胞,包装病毒。收取病毒上清液,纯化后感染NB4细胞,荧光倒置显微镜观察感染效率,RT-PCR法检测PML(ΔNLS)mRNA的转录水平,Western blot检测PML(ΔNLS)、β-catenin、γ-catenin和c-Myc蛋白表达的变化。CCK-8实验观察细胞增殖。结果成功构建PML(ΔNLS)过表达慢病毒,病毒感染NB4细胞,感染效率达82.74%,LV5-PML(ΔNLS)携带的PML(ΔNLS)能够在NB4细胞中稳定表达;感染LV5-PML(ΔNLS)的NB4细胞中β-catnin、γ-catenin和c-Myc蛋白表达下降(P0.05);NB4细胞增殖活力明显高于未感染组和空病毒载体组(P0.05)。结论成功构建了重组慢病毒PML(ΔNLS),PML(ΔNLS)过表达可促进NB4细胞体外增殖,并抑制c-Myc蛋白表达。     

ALEX1基因过表达慢病毒载体的构建和鉴定

目的:探讨构建Arm重复蛋白1(ALEX1)基因过表达慢病毒表达载体,感染乳腺癌细胞系SK-BR3后观察ALEX1的表达,为研究ALEX1在乳腺癌中的作用及机制奠定基础。方法:利用DNA重组技术将ALEX1基因插入到慢病毒穿梭质粒LV5中,获得重组慢病毒质粒V-ALEX1,经酶切鉴定及DNA测序鉴定后,用Lipofectamine 2000将重组质粒和慢病毒包装质粒系统(p Gag/Pol、pRev、p VSV-G)转染293T细胞中包装成重组慢病毒颗粒,经流式细胞术测定重组慢病毒滴度。将成功包装的ALEX1过表达慢病毒载体(LV5-ALEX1)和阴性对照载体(LV5-NC),感染SK-BR3细胞(MOI为10)48~72 h,Realtime PCR和Western blot法分析ALEX1表达情况。结果:酶切鉴定结果显示:产生约1 500 bp的片段,片段大小与ALEX1基因cDNA大小一致。DNA测序比对说明测序结果与预期ALEX1基因序列完全一致,证实ALEX1基因正确插入载体中,成功构建ALEX1基因过表达载体。经293T细胞包装后,成功获得病毒滴度为4.25×10~8TU/ml的重组慢病毒LV5-ALEX1。Realtime PCR和western blot结果显示:与感染LV5-NC的SK-BR3细胞相比,LV5-ALEX1感染可明显增加ALEX1 mRNA及蛋白的表达水平。结论:成功构建ALEX1基因过表达慢病毒载体,ALEX1基因过表达慢病毒能够感染乳腺癌SK-BR3细胞,可使外源基因获得稳定过表达。     

CRNDE过表达促进人肝癌细胞系HepG2增殖和迁移

目的探讨长链非编码RNA(lncRNA)结直肠差异性表达基因(CRNDE)对HepG2细胞增殖和迁移能力的影响及作用机制。方法构建CRNDE过表达质粒,进行慢病毒包装后感染HepG2细胞。实验分别设置阴性对照组(LV5/NC)和CRNDE过表达组(LV5/CRNDE)。应用2.5μg/mL嘌呤霉素干预4~5周,筛选出CRNDE过表达HepG2细胞系;CCK8和细胞划痕实验检测细胞的增殖及迁移能力变化;real-time PCR和Western blot检测两组细胞E-cadherin、N-cadherin、Bax和Bcl-2 mRNA及蛋白表达变化。结果与LV5/NC组相比,LV5/CRNDE组CRNDE表达显著升高(P<0.01),且LV5/CRNDE组细胞的增殖和迁移能力均显著提高(P<0.01);同时,LV5/CRNDE组细胞E-cadherin和Bax表达均明显降低(P<0.01),而N-cadherin和Bcl-2表达则明显升高(P<0.01)。结论CRNDE可通过促进N-cadherin和Bcl-2表达,抑制E-cadherin和Bax表达,进而增强HepG2细胞的增殖和迁移能力。     

表达丙型肝炎病毒核心蛋白的人肝癌稳定转染细胞株的建立与鉴定

目的建立能表达丙型肝炎病毒核心蛋白(HCV core)的人肝癌细胞SMMC-7721的稳定转染细胞株。方法构建含目的基因HCV core的重组质粒,转染HEK293T细胞,包装获得含ZsGreen和HCV core基因的慢病毒后,感染SMMC-7721人肝癌细胞,采用实时荧光定量PCR检测HCV core mRNA表达,采用免疫荧光细胞化学染色和Western blot法检测HCV core蛋白表达,筛选稳定表达HCV core的细胞株。结果质粒酶切和序列测定证实重组载体构建正确;慢病毒包装48 h后可见清晰ZsGreen表达,感染SMMC-7721细胞后筛选获得稳定转染的细胞株,实时荧光定量PCR检测到HCV core mRNA,免疫荧光细胞化学染色和Western blot法均检测出HCV core蛋白表达。结论成功构建了表达HCV core蛋白的SMMC-7721人肝癌细胞的稳定转染细胞株。     

溶酶体相关膜蛋白2AshRNA对乳腺癌细胞株紫杉醇耐药的影响

目的制备针对人溶酶体相关膜蛋白2A(LAMP2A)的shRNA重组慢病毒,获得稳定低表达LAMP2A的MDA-MB-231乳腺癌细胞株,观察LAMP2A分子下调对乳腺癌细胞紫杉醇耐药性的影响。方法通过对LAMP2A的mRNA序列分析,设计了4条shRNA,通过基因重组技术构建pGLV-EGFP-shRNA慢病毒表达质粒,并测序鉴定。将构建的表达质粒和包装质粒共转染人胚肾HEK293T细胞包装产生慢病毒,测定病毒滴度。将构建的shRNA慢病毒表达载体感染人乳腺癌MDA-MB-231细胞,嘌呤霉素筛选获得稳定细胞株后,Western blot法检测LAMP2A表达,验证蛋白表达抑制效果。采用1 nmol/L、10 nmol/L、100nmol/L的紫杉醇处理LAMP2A低表达乳腺癌细胞株后,用MTT法观察LAMP2A低表达组和对照组之间增殖效率的差异。结果测序结果显示重组慢病毒质粒构建正确,病毒滴度达2×108TU/mL。乳腺癌稳定细胞株中LAMP2A蛋白表达量显著降低。在10 nmol/L、100 nmol/L紫杉醇处理后,LAMP2A低表达乳腺癌细胞株对紫杉醇耐药性明显降低(P0.05)。结论成功构建了人的LAMP2A基因shRNA慢病毒载体,获得了稳定低表达LAMP2A的乳腺癌细胞株,证实LAMP2A下调能够降低乳腺癌细胞株对紫杉醇的耐药性。     

MicroRNA-26a的表达对急性髓系白血病细胞增殖的影响

目的观察构建has-miR-26a重组慢病毒的表达载体对急性髓系白血病细胞增殖能力的影响。方法构建人MicroRNA-26a慢病毒表达载体(LV-miR-26a-GFP)并感染人急性髓系白血病细胞系NB4;分为未感染组、感染组(感染LV-miR-26a-GFP)以及阴性对照组(感染LV-GFP);用real-time RT-PCR检测miR-26a在NB4细胞内的表达水平,Western blot检测PTEN的表达;用CCK-8法绘制细胞的生长曲线和软琼脂克隆形成实验检测细胞的增殖。结果成功构建miR-26a重组慢病毒的表达载体,感染白血病细胞NB4后,能够成功过表达miR-26a。生长曲线的结果显示与感染LV-GFP阴性对照组和未感染组相比,LV-miR-26a-GFP感染组细胞的增殖速度显著增加(P<0.01),软琼脂克隆形成实验证实了感染LV-miR-26a-GFP的NB4细胞的克隆形成能力(GFP+克隆数为75+10)与阴性对照组(感染LV-GFP)相比(GFP+克隆数为26+5)显著增强(P<0.05)。在NB4细胞中过表达miR-26a后,其靶基因PTEN的表达明显被抑制。结论 MicroRNA-26a的表达可增强急性髓系白血病细胞的增殖能力,促进白血病细胞的增殖。     

慢病毒介导的重组p27^kip1对肾癌恶性表型影响

目的观察LV/p27^kip1慢病毒颗粒感染对肾癌细胞株786-0恶性表型影响及祼鼠皮下移植肿瘤的影响,以明确p27^kip1在肾癌中的生物学特性,期望为肾癌的预后评估及基因治疗策略提供实验依据。方法利用四质粒系统包装并纯化LV/p27^kip1慢病毒颗粒,对786-0细胞进行感染后分别进行Western Blot检测、细胞周期分析、细胞增殖测定、细胞杀伤率测定。选取BALB/C祼鼠,构建皮下移植瘤成功后注射LV/p27^kip1慢病毒,结束治疗后进行组织病理学检查及TUNEL检测。结果通过外源基因的导入,WesternBlot显示p27^kip1蛋白在感染后的786-0细胞中高表达,且跟随MOI值的增高而表达量相应增多;细胞周期分析表明外源性p27^kip1蛋白在786-0细胞高表达可抑制细胞由G1期向S期过渡;细胞增殖曲线提示感染后第72小时起细胞出现显著的数量下降,且随着MOI值的增加提高对细胞增殖的抑制;细胞杀伤性检测表明MOI=2、MOI=4、MOI=8组的LV/p27^kip1感染对细胞有显著杀伤作用,但影响效果无明确的规律;体内实验证实祼鼠皮下肿瘤在病毒的作用下出现了明显的坏死及凋亡。结论增加外源性p27^kip1表达可以阻滞肾癌细胞周期,抑制肿瘤细胞增殖,诱发凋亡。     

中性粒细胞弹性蛋白酶的过表达促进K562细胞增殖并抑制其凋亡

目的利用Ad Easy系统构建携带人中性粒细胞弹性蛋白酶(NE)基因的重组腺病毒表达质粒,并感染K562细胞,观察其对K562细胞增殖和凋亡的影响。方法以急性早幼粒细胞白血病(APL)细胞株HL-60的RNA为模板,经反转录PCR得到NE基因的编码区并克隆入穿梭载体p Ad Track-CMV,得到p Ad-NE,经HindⅢ、EcoRⅤ酶切鉴定和测序正确后,将其转化入p Ad Easy-1-BJ5183进行同源重组,得到重组子Ad-NE,经PacⅠ酶切线性化后转染AD293细胞进行包装。14 d之后收获原代病毒,经5轮扩增后,测定病毒滴度,进行PCR鉴定。感染K562细胞后,荧光显微镜初步观察感染效率,同时用流式细胞术检测感染效率;Western blot法进一步鉴定NE是否表达上调;CCK-8法测定细胞增殖情况;流式细胞术测定细胞凋亡和细胞周期变化。结果酶切鉴定及测序结果表明重组穿梭质粒p Ad-NE构建成功;酶切鉴定显示同源重组成功,得到重组子Ad-NE;荧光显微镜表明病毒包装成功;经过5轮扩增后,病毒滴度达到1.64×1012pfu/m L;感染K562细胞后,荧光显微镜观察感染效率达80%左右;Western blot法检测到NE表达上调;CCK-8实验显示NE表达上调后K562细胞增殖能力增强;流式细胞术显示S期细胞明显增多并且细胞凋亡减少。结论过表达NE可促进K562细胞增殖并抑制其凋亡。     

PDCD4重组慢病毒载体的构建、包装及其对前列腺癌细胞增殖的影响

目的构建表达程序性细胞死亡因子4(PDCD4)的慢病毒表达载体,建立能够稳定表达目的基因的前列腺癌PC3细胞亚株。研究PDCD4分子对前列腺癌细胞增殖的影响。方法利用PCR扩增PDCD4编码区片段,克隆入pENTRA-3C入门载体,利用LR clonaseⅡ重组酶将目的基因片段转接入pLenti-6.3慢病毒表达载体并包装相应的慢病毒,以表达红色荧光蛋白mCherry的pLenti-6.3-mCherry慢病毒载体包装的慢病毒为对照,感染人前列腺癌PC3细胞,通过杀稻瘟素(blasticidin)筛选出能够稳定过表达PDCD4蛋白的细胞亚株。利用Western blot法检测PDCD4蛋白的表达量,MTT法和平板克隆形成实验检测细胞增殖能力的变化。结果构建了重组慢病毒载体pLenti6.3-PDCD4。利用重组慢病毒表达系统筛选稳定过表达PDCD4蛋白的细胞亚株,并用Western blot法进行了验证。MTT法及平板克隆形成实验结果显示PDCD4高表达的PC3细胞亚株的增殖能力受到抑制。结论成功构建了表达PDCD4分子的慢病毒表达载体,筛选出稳定表达PDCD4的PC3细胞株。过表达的PD-CD4分子可以显著抑制PC3前列腺癌细胞的增殖。     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

The universal muscular chain reaction,muscle spasm,Torsions, ruptures and extravasations. Chameleons of pathology and some manifestations of simple muscular disorders

Most bodily functions require the coordinated actions of complementary and supplementary paired muscle groups. Where this essential muscular cooperation is lacking, hollow organs may burst and others become literally screwed up, giving rise to many similar spastic diseases such as Torticollis, Twisted ovarian cyst, Torsion of the Testis, Volvulus of the intestines, Varicose Veins, Megacolon, Aortamegaly, Scoliosis, Erb's Palsy, Peyronie's Disease, Main-en-Griffe, Undescended Foot (Pes Cavus), Talipes, Strabismus. Spasm is “panenepidemic” and unclassified examples of Torsion Dystonia and Dyskinesia really are as common as debt and taxes.     

'Very sore nights and days': the child's experience of illness in early modern England, c.1580-1720

Sick children were ubiquitous in early modern England, and yet they have received very little attention from historians. Taking the elusive perspective of the child, this article explores the physical, emotional, and spiritual experience of illness in England between approximately 1580 and 1720. What was it like being ill and suffering pain? How did the young respond emotionally to the anticipation of death? It is argued that children’s experiences were characterised by profound ambivalence: illness could be terrifying and distressing, but also a source of emotional and spiritual fulfilment and joy. This interpretation challenges the common assumption amongst medical historians that the experiences of early modern patients were utterly miserable. It also sheds light on children’s emotional feelings for their parents, a subject often overlooked in the historiography of childhood. The primary sources used in this article include diaries, autobiographies, letters, the biographies of pious children, printed possession cases, doctors’ casebooks, and theological treatises concerning the afterlife.     

Guidelines for the Validation and Use of Immunoassays for Determination of Introduced Proteins in Biotechnology Enhanced Crops and Derived Food Ingredients

Recent advancements in agricultural biotechnology have created a need for analytical techniques to determine introduced proteins in crops enhanced through modern biotechnology techniques. These proteins are expressed in plant tissues and may be present in food ingredients. Immunoassays are ideally suited for protein detection and may be used as both quantitative and threshold methods. Microplate ELISA and lateral flow devices are two of the most commonly used immunoassay formats for agricultural biotechnology applications. This paper provides general background information and a discussion of criteria for the validation and application of immunochemical methods to the analysis of proteins introduced into plants and food ingredients using biotechnology methods. It is the result of a collaborative effort of members of the Analytical Environmental Immunochemical Consortium. This collaborative effort represents the combined expertise of several organizations to reach consensus on establishing guidelines for the validation and use of immunoassays. Further, the paper offers developers and users a consistent approach to adopting the technology as well as aid in producing accurate and meaningful results.     

Ultracryotomy: development and application (with examples from the yeast cytology) (author's transl)

The preparation steps usually necessary for obtaining ultrathin frozen sections of biological material (chemical prefixation, enclosing, cryoprotective treatment, freezing, sectioning, and post-staining the sections for transmission electron microscopy) are submitted to a critical analysis. The application of cryo-ultramicrotomy, in particularly for cytochemical purposes, is reviewed. Fundamental considerations of chemical prefixation and poststaining are supported by examples from yeast cytology. Furthermore, the efficiency of the cryo-ultramicrotomy (electron optical resolution of ultrastructural details) is demonstrated on yeast cells and protoplasts.     

Hypo- und Hypermagnesämie aus kardiologischer Sicht

Zusammenfassung Eine Reihe pathologischer Zustände bedingen Magnesiummangel. Zustände mit Hypermagnesämie sind ebenfalls bekannt, doch wesentlich seltener. Für den Kardiologen beachtenswert ist, daß unter Therapie mit bestimmten Diuretica bei Herzinsuffizienz, bei Herzinfarkt, Kardiomyopathie, Digitalisintoxikation und bestimmten Herzrhythmusstörungen Hypomagnesämie beobachtet wurde. Leider kann in der klinischen Routine nur ein extracelluläres Magnesiumdefizit durch Serumbestimmungen gemessen werden; über Magnesiummangel einzelner Organe kann nichts ausgesagt werden. Hinweise für Magnesiummangel geben aber neben der Messung des Serumspiegels Anamnese, klinischer Befund, bestimmte EKG-Veränderungen wie auch evtl. Hypokalämie, ein Zustand, bei dem sich oft — besonders bei Aldosteronismus — parallele Veränderungen zeigten.Tierexperimente deuten darauf hin, daß infarktähnliche Läsionen unter Magnesiummangel entstehen, doch ob Herzinfarkt beim Menschen durch Magnesiummangel ausgelöst werden kann, ist noch ungeklärt. In Leichenherzen zeigte sich im Infarktgebiet neben Calciumakkumulation signifikanter Magnesiumverlust, wobei unklar blieb, ob sich Ursache oder Folge des Infarktes widerspiegelten. Falls ein ursächlicher Zusammenhang besteht, ist er im Myokardstoffwechsel selbst zu suchen, wie bei der Alkoholkardiomyopathie, wo myokardialer Magnesiummangel zumindest als pathogenetischer Teilfaktor anerkannt wird. Andererseits versucht man aber auch Beziehungen zwischen Atherosklerose, Blutgerinnung und Hypomagnesämie herzustellen, in der Meinung, daß Magnesiummangel auch über den coronaren Pathomechanismus des Herzinfarktes wirken könnte. Sicher scheint, daß gewisse EKG-Veränderungen und Herzrhythmusstörungen durch einen irritierten Magnesiumhaushalt bedingt sein können, da sie bei Gabe bzw. Entzug von Magnesium verschwinden. Daß Magnesiummangel die Glykosidtoleranz verringert, wird tierexperimentell bestätigt. Unter Hypomagnesämie bewirkt Acetylstrophanthidin eher und länger Rhythmusstörungen als ohne, außerdem lassen diese sich durch Magnesiumgaben eliminieren. Da in gewissen Fällen spontane und digitalisinduzierte Herzrythmusstörungen durch Magnesiuminjektionen beseitigt wurden, scheint Magnesium als Therapeuticum angebracht. Einsatz verschiedener Magnesiumsalze bei Angina pectoris, degenerativen Herzerkrankungen und Herzinsuffizienz ohne geprüften und offensichtlich gestörten Magnesiumhaushalt ist fragwürdig, weil keine eindeutigen klinischen Erfolgsbeweise vorliegen. Immerhin mag es aber larvierte, durch Serumbestimmungen nicht erfaßbare Mangelzustände geben. Allgemein erscheint es aus kardiologischer Sicht ratsam, den Magnesiumhaushalt zu überwachen und in entsprechenden Fällen auszugleichen, um möglichen Myokardläsionen oder fatalen Herzrhythmusstörungen entgegenzuwirken.     

HLA in North Colombia Chimila Amerindians

HLA-A,-B,-C,-DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles have been studied in Chimila Amerindians from Sabana de San Angel (North Colombian Coast) by using high resolution molecular typing. A frequent extended haplotype was found:HLA-A*24:02-B*51:10-C*15:02-BRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 (28.7%) which has also been described in Amerinndian Mayos Mexican population (Mexico, California Gulf, Pacific Ocean). Other haplotypes had already been found in Amerindians from Mexico (Pacific and Atlantic Coast), Peru (highlands and Amazon Basin), Bolivia and North USA. A geographic pattern according to HLA allele or haplotype frequencies is lacking in Amerindians, as already known. Also, five new extended haplotypes were found in Chimila Amerindians. Their HLA-A*24:02 high frequencies characteristic is shared with aboriginal populations of Taiwan; also, HLA-C*01:02 high frequencies are found in New Zealand Maoris, New Caledonians and Kimberly Aborigines from Australia. Finally, this study may show a model of evolutionary factors acting and rising one HLA allele frequency (-A*24:02), but not in others that belong to the same or different HLA loci.     

The case for allele‐specific recognition by the TCR

There is a sharp difference in how one views TCR structure–function–behaviour dependent on whether its recognition of major histocompatibility complex‐encoded restriction elements (R) is germline selected or somatically generated. The generally accepted or Standard model is built on the assumption that recognition of R is by the V regions of the αβ TCR, which is not driven by allele specificity, whereas the competing model posits that recognition of R is allele‐specific. The establishing of allele‐specific recognition of R by the TCR would rule out the Standard model and clear the road to a consideration of a competing construct, the Tritope model. Here, the case for allele‐specific recognition (germline selected) is detailed making it obvious that the Standard model is untenable.