急性缺血性脑卒中患者血白细胞计数对短期预后的预测价值

目的分析急性缺血性脑卒中患者外周血白细胞水平对其短期预后的预测价值。方法入选685例急性缺血性脑卒中患者,根据治疗结局分为死亡组(n=30)、残疾组(n=74)、无残疾组(n=581),其中死亡组与残疾组均归为短期预后不良。对3组患者的基线资料(年龄、性别、吸烟史、饮酒史、高血压史、糖尿病、入院时体温等)进行Logistic分析。结果 3组患者年龄、高血糖、高血脂、纤维蛋白原、入院时体温及白细胞计数组间比较,P0.05;单因素Logistic回归分析显示,上述因素均是急性缺血性脑卒中患者发生短期预后不良的预测因素。将年龄等影响因素经校正后,进行多因素Logistic回归分析,结果显示白细胞计数为急性缺血性脑卒中患者发生短期不良结局的独立危险因素,且趋势性P0.05。结论急性缺血性脑卒中患者外周血白细胞计数越高,短期预后越差,临床应引起重视并尽早干预,以改善预后。     

血白细胞计数与急性缺血性脑卒中患者短期预后的关系

目的探讨血白细胞计数与急性缺血性脑卒中患者短期预后的关系。方法收集3151例急性缺血性脑卒中的一般资料,并进行血常规、生化指标及凝血四项的测定和改良Rankin量表(mRS)评分。采用Logistic回归分析血白细胞计数与急性缺血性脑卒中短期不良预后的关系。结果根据mRS评分,将患者分为无残疾组2640例,残疾组407例,死亡组104例;511例为短期不良结局。残疾组的高血糖史、脑卒中复发、血脂异常比率及体温、血糖、纤维蛋白原、白细胞计数显著高于无残疾组(均P0.05)。死亡组的高血糖史、脑卒中复发、血脂异常的比率及年龄、体温、血糖、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇、肌酐、尿素氮、纤维蛋白原、白细胞计数显著高于无残疾组(均P0.05)。单因素Logistic回归分析显示,年龄、脑卒中复发、体温升高、高血糖、血脂异常、纤维蛋白原升高、尿素氮升高与白细胞计数升高是发生短期不良结局的危险因素(均P0.01)。多因素Logistic回归分析显示,白细胞计数为10.1×109/L~11.0×109/L、11.1×109/L~12.0×109/L、≥12.1×109/L是急性缺血性脑卒患者发生短期预后不良的独立危险因素(P0.05~0.01),并且发生短期预后不良的风险随着白细胞计数的增高而增加(趋势性P0.01)。结论急性缺血性脑卒中患者入院时血白细胞计数升高增加了短期预后不良发生的风险。     

血浆甘油三酯水平与缺血性卒中出院结局关系研究

目的   探讨急性缺血性卒中患者入院时血浆甘油三酯（triglyceride,TG）水平与出院结局不良的关系。 方法  采用回顾性队列研究的方法,连续纳入内蒙古兴安盟人民医院2009年6月1日～2012年5月31日急性缺血性卒中患者,共计3351例。结局不良组定义为患者出院时改良Rankin量表（modified Rankin Scale,mRS）评分≥3分,对结局不良组和结局良好组患者间基线资料进行比较。用四分位数法将患者入院时血浆TG水平分为4组,用非条件Logistic回归分析入院时TG水平与急性缺血性卒中出院结局不良的关系,计算比值比（odds ratio,OR）及95%可信区间（confidence interval,CI）。 结果  研究对象中发生结局不良的共341例,发生率为10.2%。单因素非条件Logistic回归分析结果显示,TG相对最高分位数组（TG＞2.12?mmol/L）,第1、2、3分位数组（TG分别为≤1.06?mmol/L、1.06～1.46?mmol/L、1.46～2.12?mmol/L）的结局不良发生率差异有显著性（P＜0.001）。在调整了年龄、住院天数、发病到入院时间、缺血性卒中首发、吸烟、饮酒、心脏病史、心房颤动史、高血压、高血糖和心率后,相对于最高分位数组,第3分位数组的结局不良发生率差异无显著性（P=0.0758）,而第1、2分位数组结局不良发生率升高（均P＜0.0001）,其OR（95%CI）分别为11.883（1.307～2.714）和2.063（1.436～2.963）。 结论  急性缺血性卒中患者入院时低水平TG可能独立地增加出院结局不良的风险。     

短暂性脑缺血发作后缺血性脑卒中的危险因素

目的探讨TIA后缺血性脑卒中的危险因素。方法收集184例TIA患者的临床资料,分析TIA后缺血性脑卒中的危险因素。结果与无缺血性脑梗死组比较,缺血性脑梗死组高龄(≥60岁)、高血压、糖尿病以及有吸烟、饮酒史的比率显著升高(P0.05~0.01),性别及高血脂比率差异无统计学意义(均P0.05)。与无缺血性脑梗死组比较,缺血性脑梗死组发作时间≥30 min、发作次数≥3次、病程≥24 h(P0.05~0.01),而TIA类型差异无统计学意义(均P0.05)。Logistic回归分析显示,高龄、高血压、糖尿病以及吸烟、饮酒史与TIA进展为缺血性脑卒中呈正相关(OR=29.799,95%CI:2.189~405.569,P=0.011;OR=0.649,95%CI:0.038~6.850,P=0.005;OR=8.569,95%CI:1.314~55.862,P=0.025;OR=0.158,95%CI:0.025~0.980,P=0.048)。结论高龄、高血压、糖尿病、有吸烟饮酒史是TIA发展为缺血性脑卒中的独立危险因素。     

住院天数与急性缺血性脑卒中出院不良结局的关系

目的探索急性缺血性脑卒中病人住院天数与出院不良结局的关系。方法从承德医学院附属医院病案室抽取神经内科2009年5月31日至2013年5月31日所有符合纳入标准的3334病例,对病例资料采用回顾性队列研究的方法,分析急性缺血性脑卒中病患者结局良好组和结局不良组(MRs)脑卒中量表对所有研究对象进行评分,0分≤MRs≤2分为结局良好组,3分≤MRs≤6分为结局不良组的入院时基线,并分析住院天数对急性缺血性脑卒中出院不良结局的差异。结果出院不良结局与结局良好的两组患者间入院基线在年龄、性别、住院天数、是否存在心房颤动及血糖水平等方面差异有统计学意义(p<0.05);对住院天数与发生不良结局进行单因素非条件Logistic回归分析,住院时间为7~14d和14~21d的患者不良结局的出现与住院天数小于7d的患者比较,OR值分别为0.306和0.561,95%CI分别为0.239/0.391和0.434/0.726,两组P值<0.00。多因素非条件Logistic回归分析提示,住院天数为7~14d的不良结局患者与住院时间小于7d的出院不良结局患者差异有统计学意义。结论急性缺血性脑卒中患者结局良好与结局不良组入院基线有差别,住院时间在7~14d为出院不良结局的保护性因素,合理控制住院时间,有助于患者康复治疗,减轻经济负担。     

入院时纤维蛋白原水平与急性缺血性脑卒中患者出院结局不良的关系

目的探讨急性缺血性脑卒中患者入院时纤维蛋白原水平与出院结局不良的关系。方法采用回顾性队列研究的方法,连续性纳入2009年5月31日至2013年5月31日在承德医学院附属医院神经内科住院的急性缺血性脑卒中患者,收集人口统计学及实验室检验资料。分别对符合纳入标准的研究对象出院时进行脑卒中量表评分(Modified Rankin's scale,MRs)(0分≤MRs≤2分为结局良好组,3分≤MRs≤6分为结局不良组),并对结局不良组和结局良好组患者之间的基线资料进行比较。用四分位数法将入院时纤维蛋白原水平分为4组,分别为≤2.4g·L-1、2.4~2.72g·L-1、2.72~3.18g·L-1及>3.18g·L-1组。用非条件Logistic回归分析入院时纤维蛋白原水平与急性缺血性脑卒中出院结局不良的关系。结果对患者入院时纤维蛋白原水平四分位数分组后,第1~4组的结局不良发生率分别为24.25%、29.67%、33.00%及37.22%,各组之间的结局不良发生率比较差异有统计学意义。单因素分析后,以纤维蛋白原水平第1分位数组(≤2.4g·L-1组)为参比组,第3、4分位数组相对于参比组的OR(95%CI)值分别为1.518(1.150~2.004)和1.896(1.442~2.494),均P<0.05。多因素调整后,以纤维蛋白原水平第1分位数组(≤2.4g·L-1组)为参比组,第3、4分位数组相对于参比组的OR(95%CI)值分别为1.459(1.099~1.937)和1.683(1.271~2.230),均P<0.05。结论急性缺血性脑卒中患者入院时的纤维蛋白原水平独立的与发生结局不良相关联,纤维蛋白原水平较高不利于急性缺血性脑卒中的预后。     

代谢综合征与缺血性脑卒中患者转归不良的相关性研究

目的探讨代谢综合征(MS)与缺血性脑卒中患者转归不良的相关性。方法收集2015年1月~2016年4月在新疆奎屯第七师医院神经内科收治的427例急性缺血性脑卒中患者的临床资料。根据发病后90 d mRS评分将患者分为转归不良组和转归良好组。采用多因素Logistic回归进行MS与缺血性脑卒中转归不良的相关性分析。结果转归不良组NIHSS评分≥15分、后循环梗死、肺部感染和MS的比例均高于转归良好组(均P0.05);NIHSS评分≥15分(OR=8.615,95%CI:5.305~13.991,P=0.000)、MS(OR=2.226,95%CI:1.373~3.609,P=0.001)是转归不良的独立危险因素。结论 NIHSS评分≥15分和MS都是缺血性脑卒中患者转归不良的独立危险因素。     

既往卒中病史对缺血性脑血管病患者卒中结局的影响研究

目的 探讨中国人群中首发和复发缺血性脑血管病患者的临床特征和卒中结局差异。 方法 本研究基于全国多中心前瞻性中国国家卒中登记研究Ⅲ（the third China national stroke regi stry,CNSR-Ⅲ）,连续纳入2015年8月-2018年3月急性缺血性卒中或TIA患者,收集人口学信息、血 管危险因素、既往用药史及病因分型系统（causative classification system,CCS）等临床资料,记录随 访3个月和1年时卒中结局。卒中结局包括卒中复发（缺血性卒中或出血性卒中）、联合血管事件（卒中、 心肌梗死及血管性死亡事件）、脑血管病源性死亡及不良功能结局（mRS＞2分）。依据患者既往是否 有卒中病史分为有卒中病史组和无卒中病史组,比较两组的临床特征及卒中结局差异,并分析卒中病 史与卒中结局间的关系。 结果 最终纳入15 166例患者,平均年龄62.2±11.3岁,其中女性4802例（31.7%）;有卒中病史患者 3355例,无卒中病史患者11 811例。有卒中病史组患者年龄,冠心病、高血压、脂代谢紊乱、糖尿病、心 房颤动比例,既往用药史比例、入院NIHSS评分、住院期间降糖和降压治疗比例均高于无卒中病史组, 目前吸烟和重度饮酒比例、入院时LDL-C水平及住院期间抗血小板治疗比例低于无卒中病史组,差 异均有统计学意义。两组CCS分型的分布差异有统计学意义,其中有卒中病史组大动脉粥样硬化型和 心源性栓塞型卒中比例高于无卒中病史组。多因素分析结果显示,卒中病史是随访3个月不良功能结 局（校正OR 1.25,95%CI 1.09～1.44,P =0.002）,随访1年卒中复发（校正HR 1.44,95%CI 1.25～1.67, P＜0.001）、联合血管事件（校正HR 1.43,95%CI 1.24～1.64,P＜0.001）、脑血管病源性死亡（校正 HR 1.42,95%CI 1.12～1.80,P =0.004）、不良功能结局（校正OR 1.63,95%CI 1.42～1.88,P＜0.001）的 危险因素。 结论 有无卒中病史的缺血性卒中患者的临床特征及随访结局差异较大,尽管患者进行卒中二级 预防治疗,卒中病史仍然是患者1年卒中复发、联合血管事件、脑血管病源性死亡及不良功能结局的 危险因素。     

蛛网膜下腔出血患者脑血管痉挛相关危险因素回顾性研究

目的探讨蛛网膜下腔出血(subarachnoid hemorrhage,SAH)患者发生脑血管痉挛(cerebral vasospasm,CVS)的相关危险因素。方法通过对174例SAH患者人口学因素、健康习惯、既往病史、急性期应激因素、急性期并发症、急性期评价指标、治疗时间和出血累及脑区等因素的多变量Logistic分析和Cox分析,确定CVS相关危险因素。结果糖尿病史(OR=1.454,95%CI1.051～2.012;P=0.024)是住院前CVS独立危险因素,白细胞计数增高(OR=1.148,95%CI1.056～1.247;P=0.001)是CVS预测因素;吸烟(HR=1.042,95%CI1.024～1.061;P0.001)、糖尿病(HR=1.162,95%CI1.025～1.317;P=0.019)和高血压病史(HR=1.042,95%CI1.001～1.083;P=0.042)、Hunt-HessⅣ～Ⅴ级(P0.11)和CVS发生次数(HR=5.594,95%CI3.769～8.303;P0.001)是住院期间CVS独立危险因素;应用尼莫地平(HR=0.983,95%CI0.973～0.993;P=0.001)可以显著降低CVS风险;血管内栓塞和手术夹闭组患者CVS风险差异无统计学意义(HR=1.126,95%CI0.474～2.675;P=0.787)。结论具有长期吸烟、糖尿病和高血压病史、入院时Hunt-HessⅣ～Ⅴ级及白细胞计数增高的SAH患者,CVS风险显著增加;应用尼莫地平可以显著降低CVS风险。     

新疆地区急性脑卒中患者相关危险因素多元回归分析

目的探讨新疆地区急性脑卒中的危险因素,为预防急性脑卒中的发生提供理论依据。方法收集新疆地区急性脑卒中779例作为病例组,同期非急性脑卒中726例作为对照组,采用回顾性脑卒中登记方法,并进行统计学分析。结果 （1）病例组与对照组logistic回归显示：性别（P=0.028,OR=1.384）,年龄（P=0.010,OR=1.014）,族别（P=0.014,OR=1.346）,饮酒（P〈0.001,OR=2.739）,脑卒中家族史（P〈0.001,OR=0.374）,糖尿病病史（P〈0.001,OR=2.093）,高血压病病史（P〈0.001,OR=5.713）,高脂血症（P=0.009,OR=0.656）均与急性脑卒中相关。（2）维吾尔族与汉族急性脑卒中危险因素比较：779例急性脑卒中,其在男女性别比例上无显著性差异。维吾尔族相比汉族脑卒中患者,其在吸烟、饮酒及糖尿病病史的比例要低于汉族（P〈0.05）,而患高血压病病史的比例高于汉族（P〈0.05）。结论性别、年龄、民族、饮酒、糖尿病病史、高血压病病史是新疆地区急性脑卒中的危险因素。     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.