我国产科出血的流行病学特征分析

目的 研究1996-2000年我国孕产妇主要死亡原因产科出血发生的特点及影响因素.方法 在全国116个监测点,采用以人群为基础的流行病学调查方法,调查我国1996-2000年孕产妇主要死因产科出血及其影响因素.结果 1996-2000年我国产科出血死亡率由31.4/10万下降到20.8/10万,下降幅度为33.8%;农村由48.2/10万下降到31.4/10万,下降幅度为34.9%.我国产科出血死亡以产后出血死亡为主,占81.2%,其中胎盘滞留和宫缩乏力是主要原因.大多数农村产科出血病例在家中死亡.我国77.8%产后出血死亡发生于分娩后12h内.结论 1996-2000年全国和农村产科出血死亡率呈下降趋势,农村产科出血死亡率高于城市.预防产科出血的重点应放在产后出血,产后第1个12h是发生产后出血死亡的危险时期.     

全国孕产妇死亡监测结果分析

对１９８９～１９９１年全国３０省、自治区、直辖市２４７个监测点１．０亿人口范围内的孕产妇死亡监测资料进行分析。监测地区三年内活产总数４２０１４５７例，孕产妇死亡３２７４例，孕产妇监测死亡率平均为８０．０／１０万，调整后为８７．８／１０万。城市、农村、不同地区孕产妇死亡率的高低有明显差异，三年比较，城市、农村孕产妇死亡率呈下降趋势，农村更为明显。孕产妇死亡原因主要为产科出血、好高征、心脏病、产褥感染、羊水栓塞、肝病，产科出血主要原因为胎盘滞留、宫缩乏力。结果显示：可避免的死亡占８９．０％，不可避免的死亡占１１．０％。并对孕产妇死亡的有关问题进行讨论。     

产科出血病因的变化趋势及防治

1996年至2000年全国31个省、市、自治区统计，全国孕产妇死亡率为53／10万。前3位的死亡原因分别是产科出血、妊娠期高血压疾病和羊水栓塞。在可避免的孕产妇死亡中，产科出血占50％～55％。值得欣慰的是，产科出血在孕产妇死亡构成比中，已从1996年的49．2％降至2000年的40．5％，产后出血仍在产科出血中占很大比例，但已从1996年的88．8％降至2000年的85．5％，其中产后2h的出血量占产后出血量的90％。因此，如何控制和进一步降低产科出血、尤其是产后出血的发生，仍需做出很大的努力。     

再谈产后出血的预防与急救处理

截止2021年1月发布的全国妇幼健康监测数据显示,我国的孕产妇死亡率已从2000年的53/10万降到2019年的17.8/10万,其中产科出血导致的孕产妇死亡率更是下降了85.6％,但产科出血仍然还是我国孕产妇死亡的首位病因[1].2019年全国孕产妇主要死因构成比中,产科出血占16.9％[1],根据产前出血和产后出血...     

产科临床面临的挑战

降低孕产妇死亡是我们产科工作者的最终目标。为此，产科工作者付出了大量的努力，2005年我国孕产妇死亡47／10万（城市25／10万，农村53／10万），到2010年要在2000年基础上下降1／4达到39．8／10万，任务艰巨，这是一个系统工程，是我们产科质量的全面体现。     

积极防治产后出血降低孕产妇死亡率

产后出血是产科常见而严重的并发症之一,它不但严重影响产妇的健康,甚至危及产妇的生命。近年来,随着围产医学研究的进展,孕产妇及围产儿的死亡率都有了明显的下降,但产后出血仍为产妇死亡的主要原因之一。因此,降低产后出血的发生率仍为当前产科面临的重要课题之一。我国1984年21个省市孕产妇死亡率为48.8/10万,产科出血是第一位死因,占全部孕产妇死亡的45.4％。上海市1976年至1985年,10年内因产科出血死亡的产妇有110例,产后出血死亡者89例,占产科出血的80.9％。但其产后出血死亡率总趋势是逐年下降的,1976年产后出血死亡率为14.4/10万,1985年下降至1.3/10万,下降了90％,产妇因产后出血死亡在每年孕产妇死亡中的构成比也有下降趋势。上海医科大学妇产科医院通过对1949～1988年40年孕产妇死亡的分析表明,直接产科原因引起孕产妇死亡者     

产后出血病因构成的变迁及应对措施

截止2018年的公开数据显示,我国的孕产妇死亡率已经从2000年的53/10万降至2018年的18.3/10万,其中产后出血导致的孕产妇死亡更是下降了接近80%,但产后出血依然还是我国孕产妇死亡的首要原因[1]。2018年全国孕产妇主要死因构成比中,产科出血占23.2%[1],据此估算2018年我国因产后出血死亡的孕产妇就有约600人。产后出血发生率下降的同时,其内部的病因构成也在变迁,各主要出血原因占比有所改变。     

产后出血74例临床分析

产后出血是导致孕产妇死亡的主要原因。我国孕产妇死亡中，49．9％由产科出血所致，其中产后出血占产科出血死亡构成的87．8％，居我国孕产妇死亡原因的首位。青岛市生育保险参保职工2004年1—12月发生产后出血74例，本文通过对分娩资料的回顾性分析，找出相关病因并进一步探讨产后出血防治体会。     

产后出血的诊治与预防

产后出血的诊治与预防熊庆，张光瑜一、发病率及失血量的估计产科出血是导致孕产妇死亡的主要原因。我国孕产妇死亡中，４９．９％的孕产妇死亡由产科出血所致，其中产后出血占产科出血死亡构成的８７．８％［１］。美国的孕产妇死亡病例中有１３％由产科出血所致，其中１...     

摩洛哥塔扎省4年孕产妇死亡原因分析

目的 了解摩洛哥塔扎省孕产妇的死亡原因，以降低孕产妇死亡率。方法 对1999年1月～2002年12月孕产妇死亡病例资料进行回顾性分析。结果 4年中孕产妇死亡31例，死亡率为96．12／10万，15例在家中分娩，占48．39％，28例从未做过产前检查，占90．32％，只有3例有不正规检查几次，3胎以上24例，占77．42％，最多11胎。孕产妇死亡的重要原因依次为产科出血、产褥感染、子宫破裂、妊娠合并心脏病、梗阻性难产，也有死于妊娠期急性阑尾炎、肝脏疾病及肺部疾病等原因者。结论 塔扎地区必须宣传计划生育，落实避孕措施，开展孕产期保健工作，建立孕产期系统保健的分级管理制度以及转诊系统管理制度，筛选高危妊娠，提高住院分娩率，加强对基层产科工作者的能力培训，提高业务水平，才能降低孕产妇死亡率。     

上海市2000-2009年孕产妇死亡情况分析

目的 通过对上海市孕产妇死亡资料的分析,了解孕产妇系统管理中的问题,为提出有效的干预措施降低孕产妇死亡率提供科学依据.方法 采用回顾性分析的方法,对上海市2000至2009年孕产妇死亡病例资料及评审结果、WHO十二格表分类进行分析.结果 (1)活产数变化:上海市活产总数从2000年的84 898例上升到2009年的187 335例,10年增加了120.7%.其中外地户籍来上海分娩者近10年有大幅度增长,已从2000年的26.5%上升到2009年的54.8%,期间增长了4.6倍.(2)孕产妇死亡率及其构成比:2000至2009年上海市活产数共1 279 010例,其中孕产妇死亡262例,死亡率为20.48/10万(262/1 279 010).上海市户籍者死亡率为8.09/10万(55/680 005);外地户籍者死亡率为34.56/10万(207/599 005).(3)不同广籍死亡率变化趋势:从2000年的21.2/10万降至2009年的9.61/10万.上海市户籍者孕产妇死亡率除2003至2004年外基本稳定在10.00/10万以下;外地户籍者孕产妇死亡率下降明显,2002年高达77.42/10万,而到了2009年已下降到11.69/10万.(4)孕产妇死因构成比及顺位:262例孕产妇死亡前5位的死因顺位依次为产科出血(69例,26.3%)、妊娠期高血压疾病(27例,10.3%)、妊娠合并心脏疾病(24例,9.2%)、妊娠合并肝脏疾病(17例,6.5%)、羊水栓塞和异位妊娠(均为15例,5.7%).(5)2000至2009年前后两个5年孕产妇主要死因变化:上海市户籍者的异位妊娠、妊娠期高血压疾病和妊娠合并心脏疾病的死因变化较大,其中异位妊娠死亡率从第一个5年的1.36/10万下降到第二个5年的0.26/10万;妊娠合并心脏疾病从第一个5年的1.36/10万下降到第二个5年的0.52/10万;妊娠期高血压疾病从第一个5年的0上升到第二个5年的0.78/10万.外地户籍者孕产妇的产科出血、异位妊娠、妊娠期高血压疾病死亡率下降显著,作为首位死因的产科出血从第一个5年的21.85/10万下降到第二个5年的5.47/10万;异位妊娠从第一个5年的4.37/10万下降到第二个5年的0.68/10万;而妊娠期高血压疾病从第一个5年的6.87/10万下降到第二个5年的2.96/10万.(6)直接产科原因与间接产科原因的死亡:262例死亡孕产妇中,直接产科原因导致的死亡141例(53.8%);而间接产科原因导致的死亡121例(46.2%).(7)产科出血死亡率的变化:2000至2009年的10年间,上海市孕产妇产科出血死亡率呈逐年下降趋势,从2000年的10.6/10万下降至2009年的1.7/10万.(8)孕产妇死亡病例的评审结果:262例死亡孕产妇经上海市级专家评审后结果分为3类,Ⅰ类(可避免死亡)41例(15.6%),Ⅱ类(创造条件可以避免死亡)66例(25.2%),Ⅲ类(不可避免死亡)155例(59.2%).55例上海市户籍死亡孕产妇中,Ⅰ类17例(30.9%),Ⅱ类14例(25.5%),Ⅲ类24例(43.6%);207例外地户籍死亡孕产妇中,Ⅰ类24例(11.6%),Ⅱ类52例(25.1%),Ⅲ类131例(63.3%).(9)WHO十二格表分类:从死亡孕产妇的知识技能、态度、资源和管理方面分析上海市户籍和外地户籍孕产妇死亡原因的影响因素显示,上海市户籍死亡者中以医疗保健机构的知识技能问题占主要原因(80.0%);外地户籍死亡者中以个人家庭的知识技能和态度为主要原因,分别为54.1%和40.1%.结论 (1)近10年上海市孕产妇死亡率(尤其是外地户籍孕产妇死亡率)逐年显著下降,结果提示上海市对孕产妇的系统管理措施有效.(2)产科出血虽然跃居10年孕产妇死因的首位,但呈显著下降的趋势;30%～40%的孕产妇死亡可创造条件加以避免.(3)但随着孕产妇死因构成比的变化及服务需求的提高,探索新的服务与管理模式以保障母婴安康更显得十分必要.

Abstract：

Objectives To find problems in the systematic management of maternal health and to provide evidence for developing effective interventions to reduce maternal mortality in Shanghai. Methods Every maternal death from 2000 to 2009 was audited by experts and relevant informations were collected and analyzed retrospectively. Results ( 1 ) Number of live births. The number of live births in Shanghai rised from 84 898 in 2000 to 187 335 in 2009, which increased by 120. 7%. Notably, the number of live births of migrating people increased 4. 6 times. In 2000, it took up 25.5% and in 2009, it rose to 54. 8%. ( 2 )Maternal mortality ratio (MMR) and its composition. The total live births from 2000 to 2009 was 1 279 010,among which there were 262 maternal deaths, with average maternal mortality of 20. 48 per 100 000 live birth (262/1 279 010). For Shanghai residents, the MMR was 8.09 per 100 000 live births (55/680 005 ),while the MMR of migrating people was 34. 56 per 100 000 live births ( 207/599 005 ). ( 3 ) Trends of MMR. The MMR declined from 21.2 per 100 000 live births in 2000 to 9.61 per 100 000 live births in 2009. The MMR of Shanghai residents maintained below 10 per 100 000 live births with exception of year 2003 and 2004. The MMR of migrating people declined sharply. In 2002 it was 77.42 per 100 000 live births, and in 2009 it decreased to 11. 69 per 100 000 live births. (4)The composition of causes of maternal deaths and rank order. The top 5 causes of deaths were obstetric hemorrhage (69 cases, 26. 3% of the total deaths), pregnancy induced hypertension (27 cases, 10. 3% of the total deaths), heart diseases (24 cases,9. 2% of the total deaths), liver diseases ( 17 cases, 6. 5% of the total deaths), amniotic fluid embolism and ectopic pregnancy ( 15 cases respectively, 5.7% of the total deaths). ( 5 ) The changes of causes between the first 5 years and the latter 5 years. The MMR of ectopic pregnancy, heart diseases and pregnancy induced hypertension changed significantly in Shanghai residents. The MMR of ectopic pregnancy decreased from 1.36 per 100 000 live births in the first 5 years to 0. 26 per 100 000 live births in the latter 5 years. The MMR of heart diseases decreased from 1.36 per 100 000 live births to 0. 52 per 100 000 live births. While the MMR of pregnancy induced hypertension increased from 0 to 0. 78 per 100 000 live births. For migrating population, the MMR of obstetric hemorrhage, ectopic pregnancy and pregnancy induced pregnancy deceased significantly. As the primary cause, the MMR of obstetric hemorrhage deceased from 21.85 per 100 000 live births in the first 5 years to 5.47 per 100 000 live births in the second 5 years. The MMR of ectopic pregnancy decreased from 4. 37 per 100 000 live births to 0. 68 per 100 000 live births. And the MMR of pregnancy induced hypertension decreased from 6. 87 per 100 000 live births to 2. 96 per 100 000 live births.(6) Direct obstetric causes and indirect obstetric causes of maternal deaths. Among the 262 deaths,141 cases (53. 8% ) were due to Direct obstetric causes and 121 (46. 2% ) were due to indirect obstetric causes. (7)The trend of MMR of obstetric hemorrhage. The MMR of obstetric hemorrhage declined from 10. 6 per 100 000 live births in 2000 to 1.7 per 100 000 live births in 2009. ( 8 ) The results of maternal death audit. The results of maternal death audit were classified into 3 categories: 41 cases ( 15.6% )belonged to the first category, i. e, avoidable deaths; 66 cases (25.2%) belonged to the second category,i. e, avoidable when creating some conditions; and 155 cases (59. 2% ) belonged to the third category,which means not avoidable. Among 55 deaths of Shanghai residents, 17 cases (30. 9% ) belonged to the first category, 14 cases (25.5%) belonged to the second, and 24 cases (43.6%) belonged to the third category. Among 207 deaths of migrating population, 24 cases (11.6%) belonged to the first category,52 cases (25. 1% ) belonged to the second, and 131 cases (63.3%) belonged to the third category. (9)WHO twelve-grid classification of maternal deaths. The factors, including attitude, knowledge and skills, resources and management of the dead people and their families, the medical institutes and social supportive departments were integrated and analyzed. It showed that the main reason of maternal deaths of Shanghai residents was poor knowledge and skills of medical staffs, accounting for 80. 0% of the deaths. While the main reasons of maternal deaths of migrating people were poor knowledge and skills, inappropriate attitude of the dead people and their families, which took up 54. 1% and 40. 1% respectively. Conclusions The MMR in Shanghai declined continuously from 2000 to 2009, especially for migrating population which reflected the interventions of maternal management in Shanghai were effective. Though obstetric hemorrhage was the first top cause of maternal death during past 10 years, it declined Sharply. 30% to 40% maternal deaths were avoidable if some conditions were created. However, in order to adapt the changes of main causes of maternal deaths and accomplish increasing service requirements, it is necessary to develop new service and management mode.     

Reducing maternal mortality among Afghan refugees in Pakistan

Objective

The International Rescue Committee (IRC) strove to reduce maternal mortality among Afghan refugees in Hangu district of Pakistan by improving access to emergency obstetric care (EmOC), community knowledge of danger signs of pregnancy, and the use of health information.

Methods

IRC established EmOC centers, trained community members on safe motherhood, linked primary health care with education on danger signs of pregnancy and the importance of skilled attendance, and improved the health information system.

Results

The maternal mortality ratio among Afghan refugees in the area improved from 291 per 100 000 live births in 2000 to 102 per 100 000 live births in 2004. The proportion of refugee births attended by skilled staff increased from 5% in 1996 to 67% in 2007. Complete prenatal care coverage increased from 49% in 2000 to 90% in 2006, and postnatal coverage more than trebled from 27% in 2000 to 85% in 2006.

Conclusion

Improved services, community involvement and education, good coordination, and effective systems succeeded in reducing maternal mortality in a traditionally conservative environment.     

National maternal mortality ratio for Jordan, 2007-2008

Objective

To estimate the number of maternal deaths per 100 000 live births during 2007-2008 among Jordanian women; to identify the causes of maternal mortality; and to compare the results with those of the last report for 1995-1996.

Methods

Reproductive-age mortality study of maternal deaths among women aged 15-49 years in Jordan in 2007-2008.

Results

Among 1406 identified deaths of reproductive-aged women, 76 maternal deaths were identified out of 397 588 live births, for a maternal mortality ratio of 19.1 deaths per 100 000 live births. Forty-three (56.6%) deaths were attributable to hemorrhage, thrombosis and thromboembolism, and sepsis. Avoidable factors were present in 53.9% of women, 52.6% had substandard care, and 31.5% had 3 or fewer antenatal visits. Of those with available information on family planning, only 29.4% had ever used any form of contraception.

Conclusions

Maternal deaths in Jordan are declining. The maternal mortality ratio of 19.1 deaths per 100 000 live births reported for 2007-2008 showed a remarkable reduction of 53.9% achieved in the 12 years since the 1995-1996 report (a 4.5% annual reduction), which is approaching the 75% reduction recommended by Millennium Development Goal 5.     

Maternal mortality in Yunnan, China: recent trends and associated factors

Objective  Yunnan Province, located in southwest China, is one of the poorest province in China. The maternal mortality ratio (MMR) is about twice the national average (56.2/100 000 live births), and in remote mountainous regions, the rate is five times higher. This study aimed to examine the progress in reduction of maternal mortality in the 1990s and early 2000s and the factors associated with this reduction in Yunnan.
Design  A population-based, longitudinal, ecological correlation study.
Setting  A remote province of China with a proportionately large indigenous population.
Population  Populations at county, prefecture and provincial level.
Methods  Using maternal mortality data collected at the province, prefecture/region and county levels, trend and time series analyses and multivariate linear regression analyses were performed using SPSS (Version 13).
Main outcome measure  MMR and its change over time.
Results  MMR declined substantially in the 1990s at a rate of 3.0% per year. Utilisation of prenatal and obstetric care increased and was significantly correlated with the declining trend in MMR. Hospital delivery was a strong predictor of MMR, independent of social and economic development. Both low income and illiteracy were significantly associated with increased MMR.
Conclusions  Declines in maternal mortality in Yunnan over the past 14 years appear to reflect health, social and economic interventions implemented in the 1990s. The association of hospital delivery with maternal mortality may be due to the effective management of severe pregnancy and birth complications. Low income and illiteracy were associated with MMR but primarily through their impact on the use of prenatal and obstetric care.     

全国孕产妇死亡监测结果分析

目的 了解我国各地区孕产妇死亡率、死亡原因及影响因素,提出降低孕产妇死亡率的对策与措施。方法 根据全国及各省的人口数进行分层整群抽样,形成覆盖全国１．０亿人口的２４７个监测点,对监测资料进行分析。结果 监测地区７年内活产总数为８７０９２２０例,孕产妇死亡率７年平均为７７．４／１０万,其中城市为４５．５／１０万,农村为９５．４／１０万;全国不同地区孕产妇死亡率为２６．０／１０万￣３０８．０／１０万不     

Medical audit by peer review and competitive self-appraisal as tools for promoting efficiency: a case study in Lahore, Pakistan

A pilot maternal and child health and family planning service project in urban and rural areas of Lahore, Pakistan, was evaluated after 4 years (1984-1988). In this time the birth rate declined from 41.0 to 19.2, infant mortality from 119.0 to 70.2, and maternal mortality from 560 to 220 per 100,000 live births. Success was attributed to medical audit of services through peer review of performance.     

Maternal mortality in Greece (1980-1996)

OBJECTIVE: To use data from the National Statistical Service of Greece to examine trends in maternal mortality and risk factors for maternal deaths. STUDY DESIGN: Maternal mortality in Greece has been studied from years 1980 to 1996 in total, by cause of death, by residency (urban/rural) and by maternal age. The maternal mortality ratio (MMR) has been defined as the number of deaths per 100,000 live births. RESULTS: From years 1980 to 1996, there have been 136 maternal deaths (MMR: 7). The number of deaths has significantly decreased during this period and six major causes of death have been identified, resulting in 80% of maternal deaths. A simulation of maternal mortality between urban and rural areas has been achieved during the last decade. Also, maternal mortality rises dramatically with age. CONCLUSIONS: Although overall rates of maternal mortality in Greece have been significantly decreased over the last years, an improved recording of maternal deaths is necessary for identifying preventable factors and developing effective interventions.     

Maternal deaths in an urban perinatal network, 1992-1998

OBJECTIVE: The object of this study was to use an in-depth peer-review process to determine the maternal mortality ratio at a single urban perinatal center and to identify factors associated with fatal outcomes to elucidate opportunities for preventive measures to reduce the maternal mortality ratio. STUDY DESIGN: Between 1992 and 1998 all maternal deaths occurring within our perinatal network were identified. A peer-review committee was established to review all available data for each death to determine the underlying cause of death, whether it was related to pregnancy, and whether the death was potentially preventable. RESULTS: There were 131,500 births and 42 maternal deaths, for a maternal mortality ratio of 31.9 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births. The adjusted pregnancy-related maternal mortality ratio was 22.8 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births, with 37% of those deaths (11/30) deemed potentially preventable and a provider factor cited in >80% of these. Pulmonary embolus and cardiac disease together accounted for 40% of the pregnancy-related deaths. CONCLUSION: Local maternal mortality ratios identified through a peer-review process indicate that the magnitude of the problem is much greater than is recognized through national death certificate data. The high proportion of potentially preventable maternal deaths indicates the need for improvement in both patient and provider education if we are to reduce the maternal mortality ratio to 3.3 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births, the stated national health goal of Healthy People 2000.     

A 10-year review of maternal mortality in a municipal hospital in Rio de Janeiro: a cause for concern

A 10-year review of maternal mortality was conducted at the Municipal Hospital Miguel Couto in Rio de Janeiro. Thirty-two deaths occurred between January 1978 and December 1987. In the same period there were 18,071 live births, giving an overall maternal mortality ratio of 177 per 100,000 live births. Maternal mortality increased from 128 per 100,000 live births in 1978 to 462 per 100,000 in 1987. Abortion-related deaths accounted for 47% of the total mortality, followed by toxemia (19%) and hemorrhage (13%). The contribution of abortion-related mortality to maternal mortality increased 172% over the 10-year period studied. These results indicate that maternal mortality has been increasing in a population of urban poor and that the leading cause of death is induced abortion. In a setting where access to abortion is highly restricted and desire to regulate fertility is high, death due to illegal abortion is a major contributor to maternal mortality. The rise in abortion-related mortality over the past 10 years is attributed to a lack of family planning services in conjunction with urban socioeconomic conditions conducive to smaller families.     

Trends in maternal mortality in resident vs. migrant women in Shanghai, China, 2000-2009: a register-based analysis

Although Shanghai has good maternal health indicators, it also has a large in-migrating population, which has made control of maternal mortality a major challenge. This study analyzed maternal mortality and causes of death in pregnant women in Shanghai in the ten years from 2000 to 2009, comparing resident and migrant women. All live births were registered and every maternal death audited. The number of live births rose from 84,898 in 2000 to 187,335 in 2009. The number of migrants increased 4.6 times, while the proportion of live births to migrant women increased from 27% to 55%. There were 262 maternal deaths, 55 in Shanghai residents and 207 in migrant women (78.9% of the total). Most deaths in migrant women were due to illegal delivery. Three policy changes focusing on maternal health greatly reduced deaths: low-cost delivery services were established for migrant women in maternity hospitals, five obstetric emergency care and referral centres were created in general hospitals, and training for health professionals and health education for women were instituted. Maternal mortality in Shanghai decreased steadily from 2000 to 2009, reaching 10 per 100,000 live births in 2009. Among Shanghai permanent residents the ratio was below ten in most of those years, while among migrant women it declined sharply from 58 to 12 per 100,000 live births.