内毒素血症时内皮素及受体致肝损伤的分子机理研究

目的探讨内毒素血症时大鼠肝组织内皮素-1(endothelin-1,ET-1)和内皮素受体(endothelinreceptor,ETR)活性变化、mRNA表达以及与肝损伤的关系.方法选用Wistar大鼠90只,分为对照组、内毒素组(10mg/kg)和内皮素抗体组(内毒素10mg/kg+1∶2000ET-1抗体2mL/kg).采用内毒素血症动物模型、肝脏原位灌注模型,斑点杂交和原位杂交技术,细胞培养技术.观察了3、6、12和24h四个时相点肝组织ET-1、ETR活性变化、mRNA表达,肝组织中MDA、ATP、GPT的变化.结果(1)ET-1的变化肝组织中内皮素的含量增加6倍;肝组织中内皮素mRNA相对含量增加7.3倍;肝组织中肝小叶中央静脉内皮细胞、肝血窦内皮细胞内反应颗粒密集堆积内毒素能使培养的人脐静脉血管内皮细胞分泌内皮素的量增加12.3倍.(2)ETR的变化肝组织ETR的解离常数(KD)无明显变化,最大结合数(Bmax)伤后3h显著降低,持续24h;肝组织内皮素A型受体(endothelin receptorA)mRNA相对含量均高于对照组;原位杂交结果显示肝血窦周围、肝小叶间动脉壁的平滑肌细胞呈阳性反应,颗粒堆积.(3)内皮素在内毒素致肝损伤中的作用原位灌注肝脏内皮素不仅使门静脉压升高,而且导致肝细胞浊肿在体实验肝组织中内皮素含量与MDA呈正比,与ATP成反比.在体实验和原位灌注肝脏结果表明内皮素抗体可部分拮抗内毒素所致的肝损伤作用.结论内毒素血症时,内毒素能使ET-1含量增加,ETR的最大结合数降低.内毒素可能是在转录和翻译水平调节ET-1和ETAR的合成.内皮素及受体参与内毒素所致的肝损伤.     

AVP V1阻断剂对有机磷杀虫剂毒死蜱降温效应的阻断作用

目的给动物口饲有机磷农药杀虫剂毒死蜱(CHP)先出现快速的降温相,然后出现发热相.众所周知精氨酸加压素(AVP)是体内一种重要内源性抗热物质.为此本实验观察了精氨酸加压素V1受体阻断剂(AVPV1阻断剂)对CHP引起的降温效应和发热效应的影响,旨在探讨CHP对体温影响是否与AVP有关.方法实验用SD大鼠分为4组,每组7只,即对照组、CHP组、AVPV1阻断剂组和CHP-AVPV1阻断剂组.用体温遥测系统测量大鼠的体温和活动的变化.给药途径和药物剂量分别给大鼠口饲CHP30mg/kg(30g/L玉米油)或玉米油1mL/kg后,立即腹腔注射AVPV1阻断剂20μg/kg(30mg/L生理盐水)或生理盐水1mL/kg.结果给大鼠口饲CHP后可以引起快速的降温效应,给药后5h后体温由给药前的(37.75±0.11)℃降低到(36.34±0.22)℃,平均降低达1.44℃;而给CHP后立即给AVPV1阻断剂时,大鼠体温由给药前的(37.55±0.17)℃降低到(37.19±0.14)℃,平均只降低了0.46℃.对照组动物在给药后,则出现短暂的应激性体温升高和活动增加现象.AVPV1阻断剂对CHP的发热相无明显影响.在实验中发现AVPV1阻断剂也可提高正常大鼠的体温,持续时间为2h.结论AVPV1阻断剂可以明显阻断CHP的降温效应,但对CHP的发热相无明显影响,提示AVP在CHP引起的降温过程中有重要作用.同时也证明内源性AVP在正常体温中可能有负调节作用.     

重组人睫状神经营养因子对大鼠坐骨神经再生长的影响

目的: 观察重组人睫状神经营养因子(CNTF)对大鼠坐骨神经再生长的影响,并与神经生长因子(NGF)的作用进行比较。方法: 随机将动物分成正常对照组、模型组、CNTF给药小剂量组(48 μg/kg)、中剂量组(216 μg/kg)、大剂量组(1 080 μg/kg)、NGF 给药组(20 μg/kg),每组各10只。模型组采用大鼠坐骨神经切断再缝合法造成坐骨神经损伤模型,给药组采用不同药物剂量对神经损伤部位肌肉注射给药45 d后,测定神经动作电位潜伏期和传导速度。结果: 与模型组相比较,CNTF各给药组神经动作电位潜伏期显著缩短(P<0.01),传导速度显著增快(P<0.01);同时,216 μg/kg、1 080 μg/kg CNTF组和NGF组对神经动作电位潜伏期的影响无显著差别(P>0.05),但是216 μg/kg、1 080 μg/kg CNTF组的神经动作电位传导速度比NGF组显著增快(P<0.01)。结论: CNTF对大鼠坐骨神经再生具有一定的促进作用,而且其作用可能优于NGF。     

修治附子在吗啡诱导的大鼠条件性位置偏爱上的作用

目的: 探讨修治附子(PAT)在吗啡诱导的大鼠条件性位置偏爱(CPP)模型上的作用及其机制。方法: (1)40只SD大鼠分为5组(n=8):生理盐水组、吗啡组、吗啡+PAT处理1、2和3组。除生理盐水组外,其余4组连续8 d隔天交替皮下注射吗啡5 mg/kg或生理盐水建立CPP模型,并同时每日分别以蒸馏水或PAT(0.3或1.0或3.0g/kg)灌胃。(2)其余32只SD大鼠分为4组(n=8):吗啡组、nor-BNI(kappa受体拮抗剂)+吗啡组、吗啡+PAT组和nor-BNI+吗啡+PAT组。4组大鼠均采用上述方法建立CPP模型。各组大鼠均于吗啡注射前120 min皮下注射生理盐水或nor-BNI(5 mg/kg),PAT处理组每日PAT 3.0 g/kg灌胃,其余2组以蒸馏水灌胃。各组大鼠均于CPP训练前和训练后测定CPP值,训练后测定CPP值后取大鼠脑伏隔核并采用放射免疫法检测其所含强啡肽浓度。结果: (1)经CPP训练后,吗啡诱导引起了CPP值升高。(2)1.0或 3.0 g/kg的PAT剂量相关地降低了吗啡诱导引起的CPP升高(P<0.05)。(3)nor-BNI完全拮抗了PAT(3.0 g/kg)对吗啡CPP形成的抑制(P<0.05)。(4)PAT处理组大鼠脑伏隔核强啡肽的浓度比吗啡对照组高(P<0.05),也呈剂量相关。结论: PAT剂量相关地抑制吗啡诱导的CPP形成,具有抗成瘾作用,其抗成瘾作用可能与大鼠脑伏隔核强啡肽的浓度增加,从而激动kappa受体有关。     

川芎嗪对腹主动脉缩窄大鼠血浆内皮素-1水平的影响

目的:探讨川芎嗪对腹主动脉缩窄大鼠血浆内皮素(endothelin-1,ET-1)水平的干预作用。方法:实验大鼠随机分为假手术组、模型组和川芎嗪组。银夹法建立腹主动脉缩窄大鼠模型,川芎嗪组用25mg/kg川芎嗪注射液,余两组用等量双蒸水(1.5ml/100g)灌胃4周后,比较各组血浆ET-1浓度、大鼠左室心肌质量指数(LVMI)和左室心肌病理形态胶原染色等的变化。结果:模型组LVMI、血浆ET-1浓度和心肌胶原纤维化较假手术组显著升高(P0.01),川芎嗪组较模型组显著降低(P0.01)。结论:川芎嗪可防治腹主动脉缩窄大鼠心肌纤维化,可能与影响血浆ET-1水平有关。     

纳米硒对实验性糖尿病小鼠心肌的保护作用及其可能的机制

目的： 观察纳米硒对实验性糖尿病小鼠心肌的保护作用。方法: 选取60只健康雄性昆明种小鼠，随机抽取10只小鼠作为正常对照组，其余50只小鼠禁食24 h后，左下腹腔注射链脲佐菌素(streptozotocin，STZ)50 mg/kgBW连续5 d，7 d后尾静脉取血测血糖，随机选择血糖值>16.65 mmol/L的40只小鼠分为4组，分别是阳性对照组、低剂量(25 μg/kg)纳米硒组、中剂量(50 μg/kg)纳米硒组、高剂量(100 μg/kg)纳米硒组。各组小鼠分别每天以0.2 mL溶液灌胃补充生理盐水及相应剂量的纳米硒。每周称体重1次，各组剂量根据体重做相应调整。8周后摘除眼球放血处死小鼠，迅速取出心脏，取左心室部分心肌，制成10%心肌匀浆，测定SOD、GSH-Px活力及MDA含量；剩下心肌采用原位缺口末端标记法(TUNEL)检测心肌细胞凋亡，细胞免疫组织化学检测Bcl-2、Bax蛋白的表达。结果: 与正常对照组比较，阳性对照组心肌SOD、GSH-Px活性降低，MDA水平升高，细胞凋亡率明显增加, Bcl-2表达下降,Bax蛋白表达增强；与阳性对照组比较，低、中剂量纳米硒组心肌SOD、GSH-Px活性升高，MDA水平降低，细胞凋亡率下降, Bcl-2蛋白表达增强,Bax蛋白表达下降；而高剂量纳米硒组心肌SOD、GSH-Px活性较中剂量钠米硒组有明显的下降，相应地MDA明显上升，细胞凋亡率明显增加, Bcl-2蛋白表达下降,Bax蛋白表达增强,与阳性对照组比较SOD、GSH-Px活性、MDA含量及心肌细胞凋亡率无明显差异。结论: 给糖尿病小鼠补充一定剂量的纳米硒可以保护心肌，其机制可能与抗氧化、调节血糖及增强Bcl-2表达有关。     

血汗净口服液对大鼠血流变及小鼠肠系膜微循环的影响

观察血汗净口服液对大鼠血液流变学及小鼠肠系膜微循环的影响。方法:60只大鼠,雌雄各半,体重230-250g,随机分为血汗净口服液5.73g/kg、11.47g/kg、22.93g/kg,三七片0.86g/kg(分别相当于临床等效剂量的1、2、4、2倍)、模型及生理盐水组,灌     

金银花提取物联合奥曲肽对胰腺炎大鼠腺泡细胞损伤修复、免疫学指标及p38MAPK/ATF2水平的影响

目的 ：探究金银花提取物（HFE）联合奥曲肽（Octreotide）对胰腺炎大鼠腺泡细胞损伤修复、免疫学指标及p38丝裂原活化蛋白激酶（p38MAPK）、激活转录因子2(ATF2)水平的影响。方法 ：将SD大鼠分为健康组、模型组、Octreotide组、HFE+Octreotide组。除健康组外均建立胰腺炎大鼠模型,健康组、模型组用1 mL/kg生理盐水腹腔注射、HFE+Octreotide组尾静脉注射HFE(120 mg/kg)和Octreotide(10μg/kg)、Octreotide组尾静脉注入Octreotide(10μg/kg),均1天1次,共4周。采用ELISA法检测血清免疫球蛋白IgA、IgG、IgM含量,免疫组织化学法检测胰腺组织p38MAPK、ATF2水平,H-E染色观察胰腺组织病理变化,采用比色法检测腺泡细胞内胰蛋白酶、淀粉酶活性。结果 ：模型组较健康组大鼠血清IgA、IgG、IgM降低,胰腺p38MAPK、ATF2及腺泡细胞中胰蛋白酶、淀粉酶升高;与模型组相比,Octreotide组血清IgA、IgG、IgM升高,胰腺p38MAPK、ATF2及腺泡细胞中胰蛋白酶...     

肝再生增强因子对外原性抗原引起机体免疫应答影响的研究

目的 研究rALR对HBsAg及BSA免疫大鼠产生抗体、细胞因子和对脾脏细胞增殖的影响.方法 甲醇诱导表达rALR,测定活性并进行以下研究.①rALR对HBsAg免疫的影响:实验分为:生理盐水、HBsAg20 μg/只、HBsAg20 μg rALR100 μg/kg、HBsAg20 μg rALR 25 μg*kg、HBsAg20 v pPIC9K表达上清、HBsAg20 μg CsA10mg/kg,共6组;②rALR对BSA免疫的影响:实验分为:生理盐水、BSA25 μg/只、BSA25 μg rALR100 μg/kg、BSA25 μg pPIC9K表达上清、BSA25 μg CsA10 mg/kg,共5组.以上均皮下注射免疫大鼠,1次/周×4次,ELISA检测血清中相应抗体、IL-2和IFN-γ.③rALR对大鼠脾细胞增殖的影响:Wisar大鼠先皮下注射HBsAg(20 μg/只)1次,2周后处死,分离脾单核细胞,种板,再加HBsAg 1 μg/孔和/或相应处理因素(rALR、空质粒表达产物等),48h后加3H-TdR,12 h后收集细胞,检测cpm值.结果 rALR100 μg/kg HBsAg组的8只动物中,有2只出现抗HBs的抗体,空质粒对照组和单用HBs Ag组8只动物均出现抗HBs.rALR 100 μg/kg BSA组的8只动物中,有3只出现抗BSA抗体,空质粒对照组和单用BSA组8只动物均出现抗BSA的抗体.rALR 100μg/kg能明显抑制细胞因子IL2及IFN-γ的产生.rALR4μg体外能明显抑制脾细胞的增殖.结论 rALR能抑制HBsAg和BSA诱导大鼠产生相应抗体及IL-2、IFN-γ的产生;体外能抑制经体内致敏的脾细胞的增殖,说明rALR有免疫抑制作用.     

大豆异黄酮及主要活性成分Genistein对大鼠卵巢LRH-1基因表达的影响

目的 观察大豆异黄酮(soy isoflavones,SI)及主要活性成分Genistein对初老大鼠卵巢及体外培养卵巢颗粒细胞中肝受体类似物-1(liver receptor homolog-1,LRH-1)基因表达的影响,初步探讨大豆异黄酮作用于卵巢的分子机制.方法 采用自然老化法建立围绝经期大鼠动物模型,分别给予低剂量(50mg/kg)、中剂量(158 mg/kg)、高剂量(500 mg/kg)的SI灌胃处理8 w.分别采用原位杂交和RT-PCR检测卵巢组织中LRH-1 mRNA的表达.采用大鼠孕马血清促性腺激素(pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin,PMSG)皮下注射法建立促卵泡发育模型,分离、培养颗粒细胞24 h后,给予大豆异黄酮主要活性成分Genistein (0、0.1、1、5、10、100 μmol/L)以及雌激素受体(estrogen receptor,ER)阻断剂ICI182、780(1μmol/L)继续处理细胞24 h,采用RT- PCR方法检测卵巢颗粒细胞中LRH-1 mRNA的表达情况.结果 各剂量SI处理组卵巢LRH-1 mRNA的表达(低剂量0.563±0.037,中剂量0.926±0.127和高剂量1.223±0.134),与围绝经期模型组(0.460±0.082)相比均显著增加(P＜0.05).1～10 μmol/L的Genistein作用卵巢颗粒细胞24 h,LRH-1 mRNA的表达(分别为0.844±0.042,0.879±0.056,0.882±0.079)与空白对照组(0.678±0.052)相比均增加,结果具有统计学意义(P＜0.05).ER阻断剂ICI182,780预处理细胞30 min后再给予Genistein继续处理细胞24 h后,发现1～10 μmol/L的Genistein上调LRH-1表达作用,并未受ER阻断剂的影响.结论 一定剂量的大豆异黄酮可明显上调衰老卵巢LRH-1 mRNA的表达,1～10 μmol/L的Genistein可上调体外培养大鼠卵巢颗粒细胞中LRH-1 mRNA的表达,可能并非通过经典ER介导的.     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

The universal muscular chain reaction,muscle spasm,Torsions, ruptures and extravasations. Chameleons of pathology and some manifestations of simple muscular disorders

Most bodily functions require the coordinated actions of complementary and supplementary paired muscle groups. Where this essential muscular cooperation is lacking, hollow organs may burst and others become literally screwed up, giving rise to many similar spastic diseases such as Torticollis, Twisted ovarian cyst, Torsion of the Testis, Volvulus of the intestines, Varicose Veins, Megacolon, Aortamegaly, Scoliosis, Erb's Palsy, Peyronie's Disease, Main-en-Griffe, Undescended Foot (Pes Cavus), Talipes, Strabismus. Spasm is “panenepidemic” and unclassified examples of Torsion Dystonia and Dyskinesia really are as common as debt and taxes.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

Hypo- und Hypermagnesämie aus kardiologischer Sicht

Zusammenfassung Eine Reihe pathologischer Zustände bedingen Magnesiummangel. Zustände mit Hypermagnesämie sind ebenfalls bekannt, doch wesentlich seltener. Für den Kardiologen beachtenswert ist, daß unter Therapie mit bestimmten Diuretica bei Herzinsuffizienz, bei Herzinfarkt, Kardiomyopathie, Digitalisintoxikation und bestimmten Herzrhythmusstörungen Hypomagnesämie beobachtet wurde. Leider kann in der klinischen Routine nur ein extracelluläres Magnesiumdefizit durch Serumbestimmungen gemessen werden; über Magnesiummangel einzelner Organe kann nichts ausgesagt werden. Hinweise für Magnesiummangel geben aber neben der Messung des Serumspiegels Anamnese, klinischer Befund, bestimmte EKG-Veränderungen wie auch evtl. Hypokalämie, ein Zustand, bei dem sich oft — besonders bei Aldosteronismus — parallele Veränderungen zeigten.Tierexperimente deuten darauf hin, daß infarktähnliche Läsionen unter Magnesiummangel entstehen, doch ob Herzinfarkt beim Menschen durch Magnesiummangel ausgelöst werden kann, ist noch ungeklärt. In Leichenherzen zeigte sich im Infarktgebiet neben Calciumakkumulation signifikanter Magnesiumverlust, wobei unklar blieb, ob sich Ursache oder Folge des Infarktes widerspiegelten. Falls ein ursächlicher Zusammenhang besteht, ist er im Myokardstoffwechsel selbst zu suchen, wie bei der Alkoholkardiomyopathie, wo myokardialer Magnesiummangel zumindest als pathogenetischer Teilfaktor anerkannt wird. Andererseits versucht man aber auch Beziehungen zwischen Atherosklerose, Blutgerinnung und Hypomagnesämie herzustellen, in der Meinung, daß Magnesiummangel auch über den coronaren Pathomechanismus des Herzinfarktes wirken könnte. Sicher scheint, daß gewisse EKG-Veränderungen und Herzrhythmusstörungen durch einen irritierten Magnesiumhaushalt bedingt sein können, da sie bei Gabe bzw. Entzug von Magnesium verschwinden. Daß Magnesiummangel die Glykosidtoleranz verringert, wird tierexperimentell bestätigt. Unter Hypomagnesämie bewirkt Acetylstrophanthidin eher und länger Rhythmusstörungen als ohne, außerdem lassen diese sich durch Magnesiumgaben eliminieren. Da in gewissen Fällen spontane und digitalisinduzierte Herzrythmusstörungen durch Magnesiuminjektionen beseitigt wurden, scheint Magnesium als Therapeuticum angebracht. Einsatz verschiedener Magnesiumsalze bei Angina pectoris, degenerativen Herzerkrankungen und Herzinsuffizienz ohne geprüften und offensichtlich gestörten Magnesiumhaushalt ist fragwürdig, weil keine eindeutigen klinischen Erfolgsbeweise vorliegen. Immerhin mag es aber larvierte, durch Serumbestimmungen nicht erfaßbare Mangelzustände geben. Allgemein erscheint es aus kardiologischer Sicht ratsam, den Magnesiumhaushalt zu überwachen und in entsprechenden Fällen auszugleichen, um möglichen Myokardläsionen oder fatalen Herzrhythmusstörungen entgegenzuwirken.     

Environmental risk factors and their role in the management of atopic dermatitis

Introduction: The etiology of atopic dermatitis (AD) is multifactorial with interaction between genetics, immune and environmental factors.

Areas covered: We review the role of prenatal exposures, irritants and pruritogens, pathogens, climate factors, including temperature, humidity, ultraviolet radiation, outdoor and indoor air pollutants, tobacco smoke exposure, water hardness, urban vs. rural living, diet, breastfeeding, probiotics and prebiotics on AD.

Expert commentary: The increased global prevalence of AD cannot be attributed to genetics alone, suggesting that evolving environmental exposures may trigger and/or flare disease in predisposed individuals. There is a complex interplay between different environmental factors, including individual use of personal care products and exposure to climate, pollution, food and other exogenous factors. Understanding these complex risk factors is crucial to developing targeted interventions to prevent the disease in millions. Moreover, patients require counseling on optimal regimens for minimization of exposure to irritants and pruritogens and other harmful exposures.     

HLA genes in Amerindians from Mexico San Vicente Tancuayalab Teenek/Huastecos

Huastecos or Teenek Amerindians are presently living at North East Mexico (San Luis Potosi State). They have probably one of the most ancient culture of Mexico and Central America together with Mayas and Olmec groups with which also show close relationships. Proximity to Atlantic Ocean/Mexican Gulf originated that Spaniards had very early contact with them at about 1519 CE or before. In the present paper we have aimed to study HLA gene profile which may be useful for HLA and disease epidemiology and transplant programs in Teeneks. HLA-DRB1*04:07, -DRB1*14:06 and -DRB1*04:11 have been found in high frequency like in other Amerindian groups. High frequency typical Amerindians HLA extended haplotypes have been found, such as A*02-B*35-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02; A*68-B*39-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 and A*02-B*39-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02; also new haplotypes have been described, like A*02-B*52-DRB1*04:11-DQB1*03:02, A*68-B*35-DRB1*14:02-DQB1*03:01 and A*68-B*40-DRB1*16:02-DQB1*03:01. Genetic proximity is observed not only to linguistically close Mayans, but also to Mazatecans, Mixtecans and Zapotecans, who speak an altogether different languages; it shows once more that genes and languages do not correlate. This population was greatly diminished after European contact between 1500 and 1600 years CE; in fact, North and South America First Inhabitants population was brought from 80 down to 8 million people because of diseases (i.e.: measles, smallpox or influenza), slavery and war.     

'Very sore nights and days': the child's experience of illness in early modern England, c.1580-1720

Sick children were ubiquitous in early modern England, and yet they have received very little attention from historians. Taking the elusive perspective of the child, this article explores the physical, emotional, and spiritual experience of illness in England between approximately 1580 and 1720. What was it like being ill and suffering pain? How did the young respond emotionally to the anticipation of death? It is argued that children’s experiences were characterised by profound ambivalence: illness could be terrifying and distressing, but also a source of emotional and spiritual fulfilment and joy. This interpretation challenges the common assumption amongst medical historians that the experiences of early modern patients were utterly miserable. It also sheds light on children’s emotional feelings for their parents, a subject often overlooked in the historiography of childhood. The primary sources used in this article include diaries, autobiographies, letters, the biographies of pious children, printed possession cases, doctors’ casebooks, and theological treatises concerning the afterlife.     

Guidelines for the Validation and Use of Immunoassays for Determination of Introduced Proteins in Biotechnology Enhanced Crops and Derived Food Ingredients

Recent advancements in agricultural biotechnology have created a need for analytical techniques to determine introduced proteins in crops enhanced through modern biotechnology techniques. These proteins are expressed in plant tissues and may be present in food ingredients. Immunoassays are ideally suited for protein detection and may be used as both quantitative and threshold methods. Microplate ELISA and lateral flow devices are two of the most commonly used immunoassay formats for agricultural biotechnology applications. This paper provides general background information and a discussion of criteria for the validation and application of immunochemical methods to the analysis of proteins introduced into plants and food ingredients using biotechnology methods. It is the result of a collaborative effort of members of the Analytical Environmental Immunochemical Consortium. This collaborative effort represents the combined expertise of several organizations to reach consensus on establishing guidelines for the validation and use of immunoassays. Further, the paper offers developers and users a consistent approach to adopting the technology as well as aid in producing accurate and meaningful results.     

Ultracryotomy: development and application (with examples from the yeast cytology) (author's transl)

The preparation steps usually necessary for obtaining ultrathin frozen sections of biological material (chemical prefixation, enclosing, cryoprotective treatment, freezing, sectioning, and post-staining the sections for transmission electron microscopy) are submitted to a critical analysis. The application of cryo-ultramicrotomy, in particularly for cytochemical purposes, is reviewed. Fundamental considerations of chemical prefixation and poststaining are supported by examples from yeast cytology. Furthermore, the efficiency of the cryo-ultramicrotomy (electron optical resolution of ultrastructural details) is demonstrated on yeast cells and protoplasts.