Neuroprotective effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the 6-OHDA model of Parkinson's disease is mediated by a reduction of inducible nitric oxide synthase

Objective: Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by deterioration of the nigrostriatal system and associated with chronic neuroinflammation. Glial activation has been associated with regulating the survival of dopaminergic neurons and is thought to contribute to PD through the release of proinflammatory and neurotoxic factors, such as reactive nitric oxide (NO) that triggers or exacerbates neurodegeneration in PD. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) exert protective effects, including antiinflammatory, antiapoptotic, and antioxidant activity, and may be promising for delaying or preventing PD by attenuating neuroinflammation and preserving dopaminergic neurons. The present study investigated the effects of fish oil supplementation that was rich in PUFAs on dopaminergic neuron loss, the density of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)-immunoreactive cells, and microglia and astrocyte reactivity in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and striatal dopaminergic fibers.

Methods: The animals were supplemented with fish oil for 50 days and subjected to unilateral intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced lesions as a model of PD.

Results: Fish oil mitigated the loss of SNpc neurons and nerve terminals in the striatum that was caused by 6-OHDA. This protective effect was associated with reductions of the density of iNOS-immunoreactive cells and microglia and astrocyte reactivity.

Discussion: These results suggest that the antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties of fish oil supplementation are closely related to a decrease in dopaminergic damage that is caused by the 6-OHDA model of PD.     

慢性牙周炎与帕金森病相关性的研究进展

慢性牙周炎属于慢性感染性疾病,与多种全身疾病存在双向关系。帕金森病是一种常见的神经退行性变性疾病,炎症反应在其进展中起到一定作用。近年来,大量研究提示慢性牙周炎与帕金森病等神经退行性变性疾病之间存在潜在联系,帕金森病患者牙周状况较差,其口腔菌群组成与健康人群存在差异;与此同时,慢性牙周炎患者罹患帕金森病的风险更高,定期牙周治疗可能在一定程度上降低该风险。慢性牙周炎与帕金森病的相互作用机制尚未明确,部分研究认为帕金森病患者可能由于运动及非运动症状,无法有效维护口腔卫生,增加牙周炎患病风险;小胶质细胞介导的神经炎症则可能是慢性牙周炎影响帕金森病的关键,牙周致病菌及炎症介质或可通过多种途径进入大脑并激活小胶质细胞,最终影响帕金森病的发生发展。本文就慢性牙周炎与帕金森病相关性及可能的交互作用机制的最新研究进展作一综述,以期为进一步探讨两者相互影响的研究提供思路。     

鱼藤酮对小鼠小胶质细胞 BV-2存活率及一氧化氮含量的影响

目的：研究鱼藤酮对小鼠小胶质细胞BV-2存活率及一氧化氮含量的影响。方法 BV-2细胞以5×10^7/L密度接种到细胞培养板中,分别加入鱼藤酮0、1×10^-11、1×10^-10、1×10^-9、1×10^-8、1×10^-7、1×10^-6、1×10^-5 mol/L后0、6、12、24、48、72 h等测定细胞存活率。另以1×10^-8 mol/L鱼藤酮干预BV-2细胞48 h,测定上清液中超氧化物歧化酶、过氧化物酶、总巯基、超氧阴离子和NO含量并与未给予鱼藤酮干预的对照组比较。结果5×10^7/L BV-2细胞于0、6、12、24、48、72 h细胞增殖活力分别为0．035±0．001、0．132±0．006、0．334±0．017、1．073±0．044、2．272±0．172、0．776±0．032,可见48 h达到细胞生长曲线的峰值。鱼藤酮（1×10^-6 mol/L ）干预 BV-2细胞24、48、72 h 细胞存活率分别降低至（63．4±10．1）％、（51．7±12．2）％、（33．9±11．2）％;鱼藤酮（1×10^-7 mol/L）干预BV-2细胞72 h细胞存活率降低至（50．8±2．9）％。1×10^-8 mol/L 鱼藤酮干预48 h 后 BV-2细胞上清液一氧化氮水平达（27．6±6．2）μmol/L,明显高于对照组的（13．3±2．5）μmol/L （t＝-2．135, P＝0．044）。结论鱼藤酮在一定浓度范围内可激活小胶质细胞,但是超出此浓度范围时则可能导致小胶质细胞存活率降低。     

4-Hydroxy TEMPO Attenuates Dichlorvos Induced Microglial Activation and Apoptosis

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Lidocaine attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses in microglia

Background

Lidocaine has been used as a local anesthetic with anti-inflammatory properties, but its effects on neuroinflammation have not been well defined. In the present study, we investigated the prophylactic effects of lidocaine on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated microglia and explored the underlying mechanisms.

Materials and methods

Microglial cells were incubated with or without 1 μg/mL LPS in the presence or absence of lidocaine, a p38 mitogen–activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) inhibitor (SB203580), a nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) inhibitor (pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate), or small interfering RNA. The protein and expression levels of inflammatory mediators, such as monocyte chemotactic protein 1, nitric oxide, prostaglandin E₂, interleukin 1β, and tumor necrosis factor α were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and real-time polymerase chain reaction. The effect of lidocaine on NF-κB and p38 MAPK activation was evaluated using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, Western blot analysis, and electrophoretic mobility shift assay.

Results

Lidocaine (≥2 μg/mL) significantly inhibited the release and expression of nitric oxide, monocyte chemotactic protein 1, prostaglandin E₂, interleukin 1β, and tumor necrosis factor α in LPS-activated microglia. Treatment with lidocaine also significantly inhibited the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and the nuclear translocation of NF-κB p50/p65, increased the protein levels of inhibitor kappa B-α. Furthermore, our study shows that the LPS-induced release of inflammatory mediators was suppressed by SB203580, pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate, and small interfering RNA.

Conclusions

Prophylactic treatment with lidocaine inhibits LPS-induced release of inflammatory mediators from microglia, and these effects may be mediated by blockade of p38 MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways.     

Src family kinases involved in CXCL12-induced loss of acute morphine analgesia

Functional interactions between the chemokine receptor CXCR4 and opioid receptors have been reported in the brain, leading to a decreased morphine analgesic activity. However the cellular mechanisms responsible for this loss of opioid analgesia are largely unknown. Here we examined whether Src family-kinases (SFK)-linked mechanisms induced by CXCR4 contributed to the loss of acute morphine analgesia and could represent a new physiological anti-opioid signaling pathway. In this way, we showed by immunohistochemistry and western blot that CXCL12 rapidly activated SFK phosphorylation in vitro in primary cultured lumbar rat dorsal root ganglia (DRG) but also in vivo in the DRG and the spinal cord. We showed that SFK activation occurred in a sub population of sensory neurons, in spinal microglia but also in spinal nerve terminals expressing mu-(MOR) and delta-opioid (DOR) receptor. In addition we described that CXCR4 is detected in MOR- and DOR-immunoreactive neurons in the DRG and spinal cord. In vivo, we demonstrated that an intrathecal administration of CXCL12 (1 μg) significantly attenuated the subcutaneous morphine (4 mg/kg) analgesia. Conversely, pretreatment with a potent CXCR4 antagonist (5 μg) significantly enhanced morphine analgesia. Similar effects were obtained after an intrathecal injection of a specific SFK inhibitor, PP2 (10 μg). Furthermore, PP2 abrogated CXCL12-induced decrease in morphine analgesia by suppressing SFK activation in the spinal cord. In conclusion, our data highlight that CXCL12-induced loss of acute morphine analgesia is linked to Src family kinases activation.     

硫辛酸对MPTP诱导的小鼠帕金森病模型的神经保护作用

目的:探讨α-硫辛酸(alpha-lipoic acid,ALA)在1-甲基-4-苯基-1,2,3,6-四氢吡啶(1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine,MPTP)诱导的小鼠帕金森病(Parkinson disease,PD)模型中的神经保护作用。方法:建立MPTP诱导的PD小鼠模型后,通过旷场实验、悬绳实验和转棒实验评估ALA对PD小鼠运动缺陷的影响;通过免疫组化检测ALA对PD小鼠黑质和纹状体多巴胺能神经元的影响;通过高效液相色谱检测ALA对PD小鼠纹状体多巴胺(dopamine,DA)及其代谢产物3,4-二羟基苯乙酸(3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid,DOPAC)释放的影响;通过免疫荧光检测ALA对PD小鼠黑质中小胶质细胞活化以及小胶质细胞中诱导型一氧化氮合酶(inducible nitric oxide synthase,iNOS)表达的影响;通过Western blot检测ALA对PD小鼠纹状体中酪氨酸羟化酶(tyrosine hydroxylase,TH)和促炎分子白细胞介素1β(interleukin-1β,IL-1β)、肿瘤坏死因子α(tumor necrosis factor-α,TNF-α)和环氧合酶2(cyclooxygenase-2,COX-2)表达的影响。结果:行为学实验结果显示,ALA治疗显著增加PD小鼠总移动距离、平均运动速度和悬线实验评分(P<0.05),显著降低转棒实验的下落潜伏期(P<0.01)。免疫组化结果显示,ALA治疗显著增加黑质和纹状体中TH的表达水平(P<0.01)。高效液相色谱结果显示,ALA治疗显著增加纹状体DA和DOPAC的释放水平(P<0.01)。免疫荧光结果显示,ALA治疗显著降低黑质中小胶质细胞的活化和小胶质细胞的iNOS阳性细胞数(P<0.01)。Western blot结果显示,ALA治疗显著增加纹状体中TH的表达,显著降低IL-1β、TNF-α和COX-2表达(P<0.01)。结论:ALA在MPTP诱导的PD小鼠中发挥神经保护作用,能降低小胶质细胞活化,减轻多巴胺能神经元损伤、神经炎症和运动缺陷。     

The monoacylglycerol lipase inhibitor JZL184 is neuroprotective and alters glial cell phenotype in the chronic MPTP mouse model

Changes in cannabinoid receptor expression and concentration of endocannabinoids have been described in Parkinson's disease; however, it remains unclear whether they contribute to, or result from, the disease process. To evaluate whether targeting the endocannabinoid system could provide potential benefits in the treatment of the disease, the effect of a monoacylglycerol lipase inhibitor that prevents degradation of 2-arachidonyl-glycerol was tested in mice treated chronically with probenecid and 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTPp). Chronic administration of the compound, JZL184 (8 mg/kg), prevented MPTPp-induced motor impairment and preserved the nigrostriatal pathway. Furthermore, none of the hypokinetic effects associated with cannabinoid receptor agonism were observed. In the striatum and substantia nigra pars compacta, MPTPp animals treated with JZL184 exhibited astroglial and microglial phenotypic changes that were accompanied by increases in TGFβ messenger RNA expression and in glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor messenger RNA and protein levels. JZL184 induced an increase in β-catenin translocation to the nucleus, implicating the Wnt/catenin pathway. Together, these results demonstrate a potent neuroprotective effect of JZL184 on the nigrostriatal pathway of parkinsonian animals, likely involving restorative astroglia and microglia activation and the release of neuroprotective and antiinflammatory molecules.     

Delayed neural damage is induced by iNOS-expressing microglia in a brain injury model

Most CNS diseases begin with inflammation with subsequent neural damage eventually occurring; however, the process leading from the onset of inflammation to neural damage remains obscure. We used an artificial brain injury mouse model and examined how neural damage occurred in the brain parenchyma. The damaged area in each mouse was clearly observed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and the progression of damage was observed to occur in a biphasic manner (acute damage, within 1 week; delayed damage, after 2 weeks). We found that the delayed neural damage was absent in iNOS-deficient mice (iNOS-KO mice). Then, we analyzed brain tissues and determined that delayed neural damage was accompanied by an increase in the levels of NO end products and iNOS expression, with accumulation of iNOS-expressing microglia around the injured area. In addition, the expression of IL-1β mRNA was increased in areas affected by acute damage, but not in those affected by delayed damage. These findings suggest that delayed neural damage might arise from NO production by iNOS-expressing activated microglia and that such activated microglia might become a therapeutic target for many CNS diseases.