Coping strategies in caregivers of disorders of consciousness patients

Objective

The management of patients with disorders of consciousness (DOC) has raised several important ethical, social, and medical issues. It is also known that families and caregivers are subjected to physical and emotional load due to their assistance activity. The aim of this observational study was to compare distress and coping strategies used among caregivers of two kinds of DOC: vegetative state (VS) and minimally conscious state (MCS).

Methods

We have enrolled 80 caregivers (mean age 47.87?±?11–28 years) that were tested with self-administered measures of distress and coping to individuate which coping strategies were adopted by caregivers of DOC patients and to analyze how these have influenced the degree of distress.

Results

Data showed that the reaction to stress was different between two groups of caregivers (VS and MCS); moreover, it may vary according to the coping strategies used.

Conclusion

Results showed the importance to develop effective coping strategies aimed to reduce psychological distress and improving caregiver’s well-being.

     

Disentangling disorders of consciousness: Insights from diffusion tensor imaging and machine learning

Previous studies have suggested that disorders of consciousness (DOC) after severe brain injury may result from disconnections of the thalamo‐cortical system. However, thalamo‐cortical connectivity differences between vegetative state (VS), minimally conscious state minus (MCS?, i.e., low‐level behavior such as visual pursuit), and minimally conscious state plus (MCS+, i.e., high‐level behavior such as language processing) remain unclear. Probabilistic tractography in a sample of 25 DOC patients was employed to assess whether structural connectivity in various thalamo‐cortical circuits could differentiate between VS, MCS?, and MCS+ patients. First, the thalamus was individually segmented into seven clusters based on patterns of cortical connectivity and tested for univariate differences across groups. Second, reconstructed whole‐brain thalamic tracks were used as features in a multivariate searchlight analysis to identify regions along the tracks that were most informative in distinguishing among groups. At the univariate level, it was found that VS patients displayed reduced connectivity in most thalamo‐cortical circuits of interest, including frontal, temporal, and sensorimotor connections, as compared with MCS+, but showed more pulvinar‐occipital connections when compared with MCS?. Moreover, MCS? exhibited significantly less thalamo‐premotor and thalamo‐temporal connectivity than MCS+. At the multivariate level, it was found that thalamic tracks reaching frontal, parietal, and sensorimotor regions, could discriminate, up to 100% accuracy, across each pairwise group comparison. Together, these findings highlight the role of thalamo‐cortical connections in patients' behavioral profile and level of consciousness. Diffusion tensor imaging combined with machine learning algorithms could thus potentially facilitate diagnostic distinctions in DOC and shed light on the neural correlates of consciousness. Hum Brain Mapp 38:431–443, 2017 . © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

视觉威胁反应在判断严重意识障碍程度的应用

目的用强弱光源作为视觉威胁刺激物,与CRS-R量表中以手指为刺激物的视觉威胁反应进行对比,比较严重意识障碍患者对不同视觉威胁刺激物的敏感性差异;在此基础上研究视觉威胁反应能否作为意识的指标。方法随机选择89例严重意识障碍(DOC)患者,采用The JFK Coma Recovery Scale-Revise(JFK改进的昏迷恢复量表,以下简称CRS-R)对其进行床边测量。对于视觉威胁反应项,分别对患者采取手指、弱光、强光刺激物进行刺激,比较反应的差异。结果植物状态(VS)和最小意识状态(MCS)患者对手指视觉威胁刺激的反应具有显著的差异(P0.001),植物状态和最小意识状态患者对强光视觉威胁刺激的反应具有显著的差异(P0.001)。最小意识障碍患者对手指、强光两种视觉威胁刺激的反应没有显著性的差异(P0.05),植物状态患者对手指、强光两种视觉威胁刺激的反应没有显著性的差异(P0.05)。结论严重意识障碍患者(n=89)对不同刺激物(手指、弱光、强光)的反应无显著性差异;视觉威胁反应(手指和光)能反映意识。     

Electroencephalography quadratic phase self-coupling correlates with consciousness states and restoration in patients with disorders of consciousness

ObjectiveThe objective of this study was to explore the role for quadratic phase coupling within electroencephalography (EEG) oscillations in the diagnosis of consciousness and consciousness restoration for disorders of consciousness (DOC).MethodsFifty-one DOC patients were enrolled in this study. For each patient, a Coma Recovery Scale-Revised (CRS-R) score and 20-min resting-state EEG were recorded. Consciousness recovery was assessed with a CRS-R score at a three-month follow-up. Twenty healthy subjects were included as controls. General harmonic wavelet transform-based bicoherence was used to quantify the quadratic phase coupling characteristics of the EEG oscillations.ResultsQuadratic phase self-coupling (QPSC) at the delta (QPSC_delta), theta (QPSC_theta) and alpha (QPSC_alpha) bands were closely correlated with patient CRS-R scores. Particularly, the QPSC_theta value could significantly differentiate between vegetative state (VS) patients, minimally conscious state (MCS) patients and healthy control subjects. As compared to VS patients, patients with MCS had a lower QPSC_theta value on the left as well as a higher QPSC_alpha value in right frontal regions. The frontal QPSC_theta value showed significant differences between recovered and unrecovered patients.ConclusionQPSC characteristics could differentiate between consciousness states and show a predictive ability for the recovery of consciousness in DOC patients.SignificanceChanges in QPSC accompany consciousness injury and restoration in DOC patients. A QPSC assessment is helpful in the diagnosis and prognosis of DOC patients.     

Cardiac autonomic responses to nociceptive stimuli in patients with chronic disorders of consciousness

Objectives

Patients with chronic disorders of consciousness (DOC) may show alterations of autonomic function; however, in this clinical population, no data are available on the specific effects of nociceptive stimuli on cardiac autonomic control. Thus, we aimed at investigating the effects of a noxious stimulation on heart rate variability (HRV) in a population of patients with chronic DOC, taking into account different states of consciousness (vegetative state/unresponsive wakefulness syndrome, VS/UWS and minimally conscious state, MCS).

脑机接口技术在慢性意识障碍诊疗中的应用进展

慢性意识障碍(DOC)包括植物状态(VS)或无反应觉醒综合征(UWS)和微意识状态(MCS),目前临床鉴别诊断以及治疗仍是难题。慢性意识障碍评估,目前临床使用较多的是量表,但存在误判。为了提高诊断准确率,出现一些基于神经影像学的辅助检测方法,如脑机接口(BCI)技术。BCI主要通过脑电信号的处理用人机对话的方法检测患者是否存在指令跟随,被用于意识障碍患者意识状态的检测及康复治疗的评价。本文简述BCI技术特点及在慢性意识障碍中的应用前景。     

Resting-state EEG study of comatose patients: a connectivity and frequency analysis to find differences between vegetative and minimally conscious states

The aim of this study was to look for differences in the power spectra and in EEG connectivity measures between patients in the vegetative state (VS/UWS) and patients in the minimally conscious state (MCS). The EEG of 31 patients was recorded and analyzed. Power spectra were obtained using modern multitaper methods. Three connectivity measures (coherence, the imaginary part of coherency and the phase lag index) were computed. Of the 31 patients, 21 were diagnosed as MCS and 10 as VS/UWS using the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised (CRS-R). EEG power spectra revealed differences between the two conditions. The VS/UWS patients showed increased delta power but decreased alpha power compared with the MCS patients. Connectivity measures were correlated with the CRS-R diagnosis; patients in the VS/UWS had significantly lower connectivity than MCS patients in the theta and alpha bands. Standard EEG recorded in clinical conditions could be used as a tool to help the clinician in the diagnosis of disorders of consciousness.     

Global functional connectivity reveals highly significant differences between the vegetative and the minimally conscious state

A major challenge in the diagnosis of disorders of consciousness is the differential diagnosis between the vegetative state (VS) and the minimally conscious state (MCS). Clinically, VS is defined by complete unawareness, whereas MCS is defined by the presence of inconsistent but clearly discernible behavioural signs of consciousness. In healthy individuals, pain cries have been reported to elicit functional activation within the pain matrix of the brain, which may be interpreted as empathic reaction. In this study, pain cries were presented to six VS patients, six MCS patients, and 17 age-matched healthy controls. Conventional task-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) showed no significant differences in functional activation between the VS and MCS groups. In contrast to this negative finding, the application of a novel data-driven technique for the analysis of the brain’s global functional connectivity yielded a positive result. The weighted global connectivity (WGC) was significantly greater in the MCS group compared to the VS group (p < 0.05, family-wise error corrected). Using areas of significant WGC differences as ‘seed regions’ in a secondary connectivity analysis revealed extended functional networks in both MCS and healthy groups, whereas no such long-range functional connections were observed in the VS group. These results demonstrate the potential of functional connectivity MRI (fcMRI) as a clinical tool for differential diagnosis in disorders of consciousness.     

Mirroring of a simple motor behavior in Disorders of Consciousness

ObjectiveIn patients suffering from Disorders of Consciousness (DOC) electrophysiological recordings at bedside could serve as a complimentary and economical tool to improve diagnosis. We utilized a motor observation and imagination paradigm to gain new insights on preserved cognitive processing in DOC.MethodsEEG brain oscillations were analyzed in 10 VS/UWS (Vegetative State/Unresponsive Wakefulness Syndrome) patients and 7 MCS (Minimally Conscious State) patients and 21 controls during observation and imagination of a grasping movement and group statistics were conducted.ResultsWhile control subjects showed a typical desynchronization at 8–15 Hz during observation of a movement, MCS patients presented an analogue response at 8–10 Hz, but exhibited a synchronization at 12–15 Hz. The VS group did not show a systematic response. Imagery-related activation was only sustained for 1500 ms even in control subjects, therefore, limiting conclusions regarding the ability to follow an instruction. Furthermore, a clinically diagnosed VS patient exhibited EEG responses indicative for MCS.ConclusionResults indicate that MCS patients are still able to process an observed motor behavior on a basic sensory and perhaps even pre-motoric level, but seem not to be capable of “mirroring” the movement like healthy participants.Significance“Real-world” tasks as presented here carry the potential to identify residual cognitive functioning in DOC patients and may ultimately help to lower misdiagnosis rates.     

最小意识状态的定义、诊断标准及临床鉴别

最小意识状态可由急性脑损伤后昏迷或植物状态、变性或先天性神经系统疾病发展而来，有严重意识障碍，但病人既不符合昏迷也不符合植物状态的诊断，存存部分意识鉴别最小意识状态、昏迷及植物状态对于预后的判定有重要的意义。本文主要综述最小意识状念的定义、诊断标准、鉴别诊断及有关临床意义。     

弥散张量成像对意识障碍患者诊断与预后评估的作用

目的探讨弥散张量成像（DTI）对意识障碍（DOC）患者的临床应用价值及其各指标变化规律。 方法选取自2014年1月至2015年12月陆军总医院附属八一脑科医院临床诊断为DOC的患者[植物状态（VS）患者56例,微意识状态（MCS）患者19例]进行弥散张量扫描,分别收集脑干、丘脑、皮层下三个相关的感兴趣区域评价FA、MD等指标数据。对不同意识状态的两组的参数值进行统计学分析,并将感兴趣区的各向异性（FA）、平均弥散率（MD）均值与临床昏迷恢复量表（CRS-R）评分进行相关性分析。 结果VS组FA值明显低于MCS组,差异具有统计学意义（P<0.05）;MD值则高于MCS组,差异具有统计学意义（P<0.05）;感兴趣区（脑干、皮层下,丘脑）FA值和MD值与CRS-R评分具有较好相关性,尤其是丘脑部。 结论DTI对于DOC影像学分级具有一定的临床参考价值。意识障碍程度越重,MD值越高,FA值越低。     

Quantitative assessment of visual behavior in disorders of consciousness

The study of eye behavior is of paramount importance in the differential diagnosis of disorders of consciousness (DoC). In spite of this, assessment of eye movement patterns in patients with vegetative state (VS) or minimally conscious state (MCS) only relies on clinical evaluation. In this study we aimed to provide a quantitative assessment of visual tracking behavior in response to moving stimuli in DoC patients. Nine VS patients and nine MCS patients were recruited in a Neurorehabilitation Unit for patients with chronic DoC; 11 matched healthy subjects were tested as the control group. All participants underwent a quantitative evaluation of eye-tracking pattern by means of a computerized infrared eye-tracker system; stimuli were represented by a red circle or a small color picture slowly moving on a PC monitor. The proportion of on- or off-target fixations differed significantly between MCS and VS. Most importantly, the distribution of fixations on or off the target in all VS patients was at or below the chance level, whereas in the MCS group seven out of nine patients showed a proportion of on-target fixations significantly higher than the chance level. Fixation length did not differ among the three groups significantly. The present quantitative assessment of visual behaviour in a tracking task demonstrated that MCS and VS patients differ in the proportion of on-target fixations. These results could have important clinical implications since the quantitative analysis of visual behavior might provide additional elements in the differential diagnosis of DoC.     

Diagnostic and ethical challenges in disorders of consciousness and locked-in syndrome: a survey of German neurologists

Diagnosis and decisions on life-sustaining treatment (LST) in disorders of consciousness, such as the vegetative state (VS) and the minimally conscious state (MCS), are challenging for neurologists. The locked-in syndrome (LiS) is sometimes confounded with these disorders by less experienced physicians. We aimed to investigate (1) the application of diagnostic knowledge, (2) attitudes concerning limitations of LST, and (3) further challenging aspects in the care of patients. A vignette-based online survey with a randomized presentation of a VS, MCS, or LiS case scenario was conducted among members of the German Society for Neurology. A sample of 503 neurologists participated (response rate 16.4%). An accurate diagnosis was given by 86% of the participants. The LiS case was diagnosed more accurately (94%) than the VS case (79%) and the MCS case (87%, p?相似文献   

Quantitative rates of brain glucose metabolism distinguish minimally conscious from vegetative state patients

The differentiation of the vegetative or unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (VS/UWS) from the minimally conscious state (MCS) is an important clinical issue. The cerebral metabolic rate of glucose (CMRglc) declines when consciousness is lost, and may reveal the residual cognitive function of these patients. However, no quantitative comparisons of cerebral glucose metabolism in VS/UWS and MCS have yet been reported. We calculated the regional and whole-brain CMRglc of 41 patients in the states of VS/UWS (n=14), MCS (n=21) or emergence from MCS (EMCS, n=6), and healthy volunteers (n=29). Global cortical CMRglc in VS/UWS and MCS averaged 42% and 55% of normal, respectively. Differences between VS/UWS and MCS were most pronounced in the frontoparietal cortex, at 42% and 60% of normal. In brainstem and thalamus, metabolism declined equally in the two conditions. In EMCS, metabolic rates were indistinguishable from those of MCS. Ordinal logistic regression predicted that patients are likely to emerge into MCS at CMRglc above 45% of normal. Receiver-operating characteristics showed that patients in MCS and VS/UWS can be differentiated with 82% accuracy, based on cortical metabolism. Together these results reveal a significant correlation between whole-brain energy metabolism and level of consciousness, suggesting that quantitative values of CMRglc reveal consciousness in severely brain-injured patients.     

Sleep patterns associated with the severity of impairment in a large cohort of patients with chronic disorders of consciousness

Objective

We assessed sleep patterns in 85 patients with chronic disorders of consciousness (DOC) in order to reveal any relationship with the degree of the impairment.

Attitudes towards end-of-life issues in disorders of consciousness: a European survey

Previous European surveys showed the support of healthcare professionals for treatment withdrawal [i.e., artificial nutrition and hydration (ANH) in chronic vegetative state (VS) patients]. The recent definition of minimally conscious state (MCS), and possibly research advances (e.g., functional neuroimaging), may have lead to uncertainty regarding potential residual perception and may have influenced opinions of healthcare professionals. The aim of the study was to update the end-of-life attitudes towards VS and to determine the end-of-life attitudes towards MCS. A 16-item questionnaire related to consciousness, pain and end-of-life issues in chronic (i.e., >1 year) VS and MCS and locked-in syndrome was distributed among attendants of medical and scientific conferences around Europe (n = 59). During a lecture, the items were explained orally to the attendants who needed to provide written yes/no responses. Chi-square tests and logistic regression analyses identified differences and associations for age, European region, religiosity, profession, and gender. We here report data on items concerning end-of-life issues on chronic VS and MCS. Responses were collected from 2,475 participants. For chronic VS (>1 year), 66% of healthcare professionals agreed to withdraw treatment and 82% wished not to be kept alive (P < 0.001). For chronic MCS (>1 year), less attendants agreed to withdraw treatment (28%, P < 0.001) and wished not to be kept alive (67%, P < 0.001). MCS was considered worse than VS for the patients in 54% and for their families in 42% of the sample. Respondents’ opinions were associated with geographic region and religiosity. Our data show that end-of-life opinions differ for VS as compared to MCS. The introduction of the diagnostic criteria for MCS has not substantially changed the opinions on end-of-life issues on permanent VS. Additionally, the existing legal ambiguity around MCS may have influenced the audience to draw a line between expressing preferences for self versus others, by implicitly recognizing that the latter could be a step on the slippery slope to legalize euthanasia. Given the observed individual variability, we stress the importance of advance directives and identification of proxies when discussing end-of-life issues in patients with disorders of consciousness.     

《2018年版美国意识障碍实践指南》解读

意识障碍(DOC)是指各类脑损伤后出现的持续意识丧失的状态,包括植物状态(VS)和微意识状态(MCS)两个层次。2018年美国神经病学学会(AAN)、美国康复医学会(ACRM)等组织联合发布了针对意识障碍诊断和治疗的指南,指南包括诊断、预后、成人治疗及儿童患者处理4部分,推荐分为三个等级共18条建议,33个临床规范与标准推荐。     

Prevalence and Comorbidity of Prolonged Grief Disorder in a Sample of Caregivers of Patients in a Vegetative State

Previous studies have shown that Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD), Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and major depression are autonomous nosological entities. The present study aims at further analyzing the relationship among them in a sample of caregivers of patients in Vegetative State (VS) or Minimally Conscious State (MCS). We also investigated factors predicting the development of PGD. We sampled 40 Caregivers of patients in VS or MCS consecutively admitted to long-term care units. Caregivers were administered the PG-12, the Depression Questionnaire, the SCID I and the Davidson Trauma Scale. Six participants (15%) fulfilled the criteria for PGD, 25% (N = 10) for depression and 25% (N = 10) for PTSD. Although significant correlations emerged among symptom domains of the three disorders, no relevant association was found between a diagnosis of PGD, depression and PTSD. The severity of PTSD symptoms was found to be predictive of PGD. Clinical implications are discussed.     

The minimally conscious state: definition and diagnostic criteria

OBJECTIVE: To establish consensus recommendations among health care specialties for defining and establishing diagnostic criteria for the minimally conscious state (MCS). BACKGROUND: There is a subgroup of patients with severe alteration in consciousness who do not meet diagnostic criteria for coma or the vegetative state (VS). These patients demonstrate inconsistent but discernible evidence of consciousness. It is important to distinguish patients in MCS from those in coma and VS because preliminary findings suggest that there are meaningful differences in outcome. METHODS: An evidence-based literature review of disorders of consciousness was completed to define MCS, develop diagnostic criteria for entry into MCS, and identify markers for emergence to higher levels of cognitive function. RESULTS: There were insufficient data to establish evidence-based guidelines for diagnosis, prognosis, and management of MCS. Therefore, a consensus-based case definition with behaviorally referenced diagnostic criteria was formulated to facilitate future empirical investigation. CONCLUSIONS: MCS is characterized by inconsistent but clearly discernible behavioral evidence of consciousness and can be distinguished from coma and VS by documenting the presence of specific behavioral features not found in either of these conditions. Patients may evolve to MCS from coma or VS after acute brain injury. MCS may also result from degenerative or congenital nervous system disorders. This condition is often transient but may also exist as a permanent outcome. Defining MCS should promote further research on its epidemiology, neuropathology, natural history, and management.