Video Game Structural Characteristics: A New Psychological Taxonomy

Excessive video game playing behaviour may be influenced by a variety of factors including the structural characteristics of video games. Structural characteristics refer to those features inherent within the video game itself that may facilitate initiation, development and maintenance of video game playing over time. Numerous structural characteristics that influence gambling frequency and expenditure have been identified in the gambling literature, and some researchers have drawn comparisons between the rewarding elements in video gaming and those in slot machine gambling. However, there have been few rigorous attempts to classify and organise the psycho-structural elements of video games in a similar way to gambling. In order to aid current psychological understanding of problem video game playing and guide further research questions in this area, a new taxonomy of video game features is proposed, which includes: (a) social features, (b) manipulation and control features, (c) narrative and identity features, (d) reward and punishment features, and (e) presentation features. Each category is supported with relevant theory and research, where available, and the implications of these features for excessive video game playing are discussed.     

Video game use and problem behaviors in boys with autism spectrum disorders

Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have strong preferences for screen-based media, particularly video games. Although problematic video game use has been associated with behavior problems among typically developing children, the relationship between these variables has not been previously examined among children with ASD. The current study examined the relationships between aspects of video game use and problem behaviors among a sample of 169 boys (ages 8–18) with ASD. Parents reported on their children's behavioral functioning and video game habits and preferences, including the average number of hours spent playing video games per day, preferred game types (genres), and problematic (i.e., addictive) video game play patterns. The results revealed that problematic video game use was significantly correlated with inattention and oppositional behavior. Boys who played Role-Playing games had higher levels of both problematic game use and oppositional behavior. Finally, problematic game use and Role-Playing game genre were significant predictors of oppositional behavior, even when controlling for age and amount of time spent playing video games. The results highlight the clinical importance of examining video game use patterns among children with ASD, and indicate a need for future experimental and longitudinal research in this area.     

Preliminary Validation of a New Clinical Tool for Identifying Problem Video Game Playing

Research has estimated that between 6 to 13% of individuals who play video games do so excessively. However, the methods and definitions used to identify “problem” video game players often vary considerably. This research presents preliminary validation data for a new measure of problematic video game play called the Problem Video Game Playing Test (PVGT). Two studies were conducted: an online survey of 373 university student video game players, and a paper-and-pencil survey of 416 video game players from video game outlets and LAN businesses. This paper presents the internal consistency, score distribution, convergent validity and dimensionality of the PVGT. The PVGT demonstrates potential as a continuous measure of problem video game playing. Future research should investigate the use of the PVGT as a clinical instrument for screening individuals whose video game playing may be considered excessive or personally detrimental.     

Benchmarking the cultivation approach to video game effects: a comparison of the correlates of TV viewing and game play

This study found significant relationships between first- and second-order cultivation measures and TV viewing, but found a relationship with video game play for only two variables in a sample of 322 Flemish 3rd and 6th year secondary school children. This suggests that the absence of a relationship with video game play is not the result of the absence of cultivation effects in Flanders. On the other hand it shows that the relationship between TV viewing and cultivation measures is not an artifact of systematic over reporting. The study concludes that cultivation measures typical of the "television world" are not related to playing video games. To study video game cultivation measures must be sought which reflect the mainstream of (particular genres of) video games. The role of selectivity needs to be studied more closely. As gamers play an active role in the violence of the games the possibility that self-protecting strategies are employed in processing video game contents must be taken into consideration. Existing process theories explaining what happens in television cultivation may be challenged by research into the cultivation effects of video games.     

Notions of Video Game Addiction and Their Relation to Self-Reported Addiction Among Players of World of Warcraft

In this study, 438 players of the online video game, World of Warcraft, completed a survey about video game addiction and answered an open-ended question about behaviors they considered characteristic of video game addiction. Responses were coded and correlated with players’ self-reports of being addicted to games and scores on a modified video game addiction scale. The behaviors most frequently mentioned as characteristic of addiction included playing a lot and games’ interfering with other activities, especially socializing or work. Few players mentioned such signs of addiction as withdrawal symptoms or tolerance, and some thought it was not possible to become addicted to video games. Self-reported addiction to video games correlated positively with perceptions that video game addiction involved playing a lot or playing to escape problems, and correlated negatively with perceptions that addiction involved games’ interfering with other activities or not being able to stop play. Implications for assessment are discussed.     

Assessing the Potential Risks Associated with Facebook Game Use

This study used the psycho-structural taxonomy proposed by King et al. (International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 8(1), 90–106, 2010a) to examine the structural characteristics of two genres of Facebook games (Tile Matching games and Simulation/RPGs) to investigate their potential to encourage and maintain Problem Video Game Play (PVGP). Ten of the most popular Facebook games were played by the first author for between two and three hours per game. Recurring structural characteristics influencing the researcher’s behaviour or considered to be problematic were noted and compiled according to the taxonomy. Both genres appeared to have the capacity to encourage the development and maintenance of PVGP. While Simulation/RPGs appear to promote more problematic use than do Tile Matching games, both tended to use similar features to promote player engagement. Further in-depth research is needed to understand the psychological impact of playing Social Network Games, and how this may lead to, or encourage problematic use of these games.     

Prevalence of Problematic Video Gaming among Ontario Adolescents

Video game playing has become a very popular activity among adolescents. Its impact on the mental health and well-being of players is just beginning to be explored. This paper reports on the prevalence of problematic gaming in a representative sample of 2,832 Ontario students in grades 7 to 12. The survey included questions about the school grade, family and school related problems, frequency of video game playing and video game related problems as measured by the Problem Video Game Playing scale (PVP). Most of the students (85?%) reported playing video games in the past year and 18.3?% reported playing video games daily. Slightly less then 1 in 10 of the students (9.4?%) endorsed 5 or more of the PVP items (males 15.1?%; females 3.1?%). Further research is required to delineate the concept of excessive video game playing, its relation to other addictions, and the impact on adolescents?? psychosocial functioning.     

How Gaming May Become a Problem: A Qualitative Analysis of the Role of Gaming Related Experiences and Cognitions in the Development of Problematic Game Behavior

This study focuses on the role of gaming expectancies, motives and the experiences of gamers in the development of video game behavior, from normal to problematic behavior. Qualitative interviews were conducted among 21 male gamers between 17 and 28 years of age, to get more of an insight into their excessive gaming patterns. Participants were recruited in several ways such as by distributing flyers and posting messages on gaming websites. Participants were included if they were between 14 and 26 years of age and if they had experienced game related behavior problems at the time of the study or in the past. Two processes emerged from the results that seem to contribute to the transition to an excessive gaming pattern. First, the duration of each single game session may become longer. Second, a game session may be started up more and more frequently. Gamers have several motives and expectancies that play a role in this process of increasing gaming time. Is seems that a combination of these gaming motives can lead to an increase in gaming time. Especially online role playing games were related to excessive gaming and the social mechanisms in these games seem to work as an intensifier for other motives.     

The Good,The Bad and the Ugly: A Meta-analytic Review of Positive and Negative Effects of Violent Video Games

OBJECTIVE: Video game violence has become a highly politicized issue for scientists and the general public. There is continuing concern that playing violent video games may increase the risk of aggression in players. Less often discussed is the possibility that playing violent video games may promote certain positive developments, particularly related to visuospatial cognition. The objective of the current article was to conduct a meta-analytic review of studies that examine the impact of violent video games on both aggressive behavior and visuospatial cognition in order to understand the full impact of such games. METHODS: A detailed literature search was used to identify peer-reviewed articles addressing violent video game effects. Effect sizes r (a common measure of effect size based on the correlational coefficient) were calculated for all included studies. Effect sizes were adjusted for observed publication bias. RESULTS: Results indicated that publication bias was a problem for studies of both aggressive behavior and visuospatial cognition. Once corrected for publication bias, studies of video game violence provided no support for the hypothesis that violent video game playing is associated with higher aggression. However playing violent video games remained related to higher visuospatial cognition (r (x) = 0.36). CONCLUSIONS: Results from the current analysis did not support the conclusion that violent video game playing leads to aggressive behavior. However, violent video game playing was associated with higher visuospatial cognition. It may be advisable to reframe the violent video game debate in reference to potential costs and benefits of this medium.     

Video gaming promotes concussion knowledge acquisition in youth hockey players

While the positive uses for video games in an educational setting have also been established, the educational aim is usually made explicit. The goal of this research was to develop a video game wherein the educational aspect was implicitly embedded in the video game, such that the gaming activity remained interesting and relevant. Following a pilot study to confirm the usability of an in-house developed game, two studies were conducted with 11-17 year old hockey players (N(1)=130, N(2)=39). Results demonstrated that participants playing the experimental version of the video game scored significantly higher on a concussion symptoms questionnaire, in a significantly faster time, than participants playing the control version of the game. Most participants indicated that they enjoyed the game and would play it again. These results suggest that educational material can be conveyed successfully and in an appealing manner via video game play.     

长沙市区儿童电子游戏依赖性影响因素的调查

目的　探讨与儿童电子游戏依赖性有关的影响因素。方法　用自编儿童电子游戏兴趣调查表 ,于 2 0 0 0年 1 0～ 1 2月对长沙市 60 2名中小学生 (年龄 8～ 1 5岁 )电子游戏依赖性的发生率进行调查 ,应用单因素和多因素方法分析影响因素对电子游戏依赖性的作用强度。结果　 (1 )共查出电子游戏依赖性儿童 40名 ,检出率为 6 6 %。 (2 )单因素分析 ,与电子游戏依赖性检出率高且差异有显著性 (P <0 0 5 ,P <0 0 1 ,P <0 0 0 1 )的影响因素有 :男童 [1 1 1 % ,比值比 (OR)值 =7 1 0 ] ,开始玩电子游戏的年龄≤ 5岁者 (1 9 5 % ,OR值 =5 98) ,玩电子游戏年限 1～ 7年以上者 (6 9%～ 1 9 6 % ,OR值 =8 44～ 2 7 73) ,每周玩电子游戏次数 3～ 6次以上者 (40 0 %～ 66 7% ,OR值 =1 44～ 4 31 ) ,每次玩电子游戏时间超过≥ 1h者 (1 1 2 %～ 53 8% ,OR值 =6 71～ 61 83) ,玩电子游戏的地点为电子游戏机室者 (1 5 3 % ,OR值 =1 0 93) ,爱玩暴力电子游戏者 (1 1 0 % ,OR值 =9 31 ) ,认为玩电子游戏好处多者(2 1 8% ,OR值 =6 2 9)。 (3)Logistic回归分析 ,开始玩电子游戏的年龄、每周玩电子游戏的次数、每次玩电子游戏的时间、玩电子游戏的类型、玩电子游戏的地点等变量进入回归方程 ,拟合度为 1 52 51 4 ,χ     

Problematic Gaming Behaviour in Finnish Adolescents and Young Adults: Relation to Game Genres,Gaming Motives and Self-Awareness of Problematic Use

The aim of this study was to explore the relation between Problematic Gaming Behaviour (PGB) and specific psychological factors (gaming motives, self-awareness of problematic gaming behaviour) and structural factors (game genres) among Finnish adolescents and young adults. A national survey of 271 respondents, aged 13 to 24, participated in the study. The study sample was randomly selected from the Population Register Center. Multiple regression analysis was used as a means of examining links between game genres, gaming motives and PGB. In addition, pairwise comparisons of a non-problematic gaming behavior group and a problematic gaming behavior group were used as a means of examining differences across game genre use and self-awareness of PGB. PGB was particularly associated with the use of a group of games encompassing role-playing, progression (e.g., character development), action and strategy features. The findings indicated that entertainment-achievement, social and escapism motives were associated with PGB. On the whole, this study emphasized that specific game genres and playing motives are involved in problematic use of digital game playing.     

Autism Spectrum Disorder and Video Games: Restricted Interests or Addiction?

High rates of video game use in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) have often been reported. This might suggest more prevalent video gaming addiction in this population, but elevated video game use could also be explained by restricted interest in video games. We thus reviewed the literature on video game use in ASD to examine the role of vulnerability for video game addiction and the role of restricted interest in video gaming. We conducted a search following PRISMA guidelines. From 511 papers, 15 were included. This review demonstrates that the high rates of video game use in boys and young males with ASD without intellectual disabilities can be predominantly explained by gaming addiction. However, an effect of restricted interest in video games cannot be excluded. Moreover, addictive process and restricted interest may interact. This result raises several issues for differentiating between video game addiction and restricted interest in regard to assessment, overlapping characteristics and interventions. Based on the results, we make recommendations for caregivers and clinicians on the management of problematic video game use in ASD.

     

A systematic review of problematic video-game use in people with Autism Spectrum Disorders

BackgroundIn recent years, an increasing number of studies documented potential links between gaming disorders (GD; including “digital-gaming” or “video-gaming”) and Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Therefore, the aim of this systematic review was to summarize current research about problematic video game (PVG) use in people with ASD and identify specific factors associated with problematic video gaming behavior.MethodWe searched for articles indexed in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCOhost electronic databases; using a combination of expressions including “autism spectrum disorder” OR “autism” OR “ASD” AND “video games” OR “gaming disorder” OR “Internet Gaming Disorder” OR “game addiction”.ResultsTwelve articles were included in this systematic review. The majority of them indicate that children, adolescents and adults with ASD may be at greater risk of PVG use than youths without ASD. Findings also suggested that several internal (sex, attention and oppositional behavior problems) and external factors (social aspects, access and time spent playing video, parental rules, and game genre) were significant predictors of problematic video game use in people with ASD. In addition, this review highlights the paucity of the literature on the consequences and individual effects of excessive video gaming in people with ASD.ConclusionsWe discuss unanswered questions and future directions and provide recommendations for improving clinicians and parents’ engagement in the prevention and management of problematic video game use in people with ASD.     

Psychiatrists’ Perceptions of World of Warcraft and Other MMORPGs

Video game use, particularly massively-multiplayer online games (MMOs) and massively-multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), has been a focus of considerable research in recent years. However, little is known regarding how mental health workers perceive patients and clients who report playing them. The present study examines whether psychiatrists play MMOs/MMORPGs and how they perceive those who play them. Psychiatrists (N = 48) at a tertiary care centre in Canada completed a questionnaire assessing history of playing video games as well as whether they associate such use with psychopathology. Only 36.7 % believed there was an association between psychopathology and MMO/MMORPG use. Implications for clinical practice and future research are discussed.     

Video game induced seizures.

Fifteen patients who experienced epileptic seizures while playing video games are described together with a review of 20 cases in the English literature. Nine of the 15 cases and all but two of the reported cases experienced their first seizure while playing video games. Two thirds of patients had idiopathic generalised epilepsy and mainly reported generalised tonic clonic seizures, but some had typical absence seizures and myoclonic jerks while playing video games. In this series, 30% with idiopathic generalised epilepsy had juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Overall, 70% of patients with idiopathic generalised epilepsy were photosensitive to intermittent photic stimulation and the mechanism of seizure provocation was probably similar to that of television induced seizures, although sensitivity to specific patterns was sometimes important. Two children had self induced video game seizures. Non-photic factors such as excitement, fatigue, sleep deprivation, cognitive processing, and diurnal variation in susceptibility seemed to be important seizure precipitants, particularly in non-photo-sensitive patients. Twenty nine per cent of patients had partial (mainly occipital) video game associated seizures. Occipital spikes were common in the EEG of these patients. Photosensitivity to intermittent photic stimulation may have been important in two patients but in the others, who all played arcade video games, other mechanisms need to be considered. Video game associated seizures are a feature of several epileptic syndromes and differ in precipitants and appropriate management.     

Real‐time strategy video game experience and structural connectivity – A diffusion tensor imaging study

Experienced video game players exhibit superior performance in visuospatial cognition when compared to non‐players. However, very little is known about the relation between video game experience and structural brain plasticity. To address this issue, a direct comparison of the white matter brain structure in RTS (real time strategy) video game players (VGPs) and non‐players (NVGPs) was performed. We hypothesized that RTS experience can enhance connectivity within and between occipital and parietal regions, as these regions are likely to be involved in the spatial and visual abilities that are trained while playing RTS games. The possible influence of long‐term RTS game play experience on brain structural connections was investigated using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and a region of interest (ROI) approach in order to describe the experience‐related plasticity of white matter. Our results revealed significantly more total white matter connections between occipital and parietal areas and within occipital areas in RTS players compared to NVGPs. Additionally, the RTS group had an altered topological organization of their structural network, expressed in local efficiency within the occipito‐parietal subnetwork. Furthermore, the positive association between network metrics and time spent playing RTS games suggests a close relationship between extensive, long‐term RTS game play and neuroplastic changes. These results indicate that long‐term and extensive RTS game experience induces alterations along axons that link structures of the occipito‐parietal loop involved in spatial and visual processing.     

Choice of interactive dance and bicycle games in overweight and nonoverweight youth

Background: Interactive video games are a popular alternative to physical activity in youth. One advancement in computer games are interactive games that use physical activity as a game playing controller, combining exercise and entertainment, or exertainment.Purpose: This study tested the reinforcing value and activity levels of interactive dance and bicycle race games in 18 overweight and 17 non-overweight 8- to 12-year-old youth.Methods: Reinforcing value was studied using a behavioral choice paradigm that provided children the opportunity to respond on progressive ratio schedules of reinforcement for a choice of either playing the video dance or bicycle game using a handheld video game controller or one of three options: dancing or bicycling alone, dancing or bicycling while watching a video, or playing the interactive dance or bicycle game. Reinforcing value was defined in relationship to the amount of responding children engaged in for either choice.Results: Results showed the interactive dance game was more reinforcing than dancing alone or dancing while watching the video (p=.003), but there was no difference across bicycling conditions. Nonoverweight youth were more active when given the opportunity to play the interactive dance game than overweight children (p=.05).Conclusions: These results suggest that children may be motivated to be active when given the opportunity to play an interactive dance game. This study was funded by National Institute of Child Health and Human Development grant HD39778 awarded to Dr. Epstein. Appreciation is expressed to Sarah Jean Salvy, Ph.D. for comments on an earlier draft of this article.     

Video Gaming as Practical Accomplishment: Ethnomethodology,Conversation Analysis,and Play

Accounts of video game play developed from an ethnomethodological and conversation analytic (EMCA) perspective remain relatively scarce. This study collects together an emerging, if scattered, body of research which focuses on the material, practical “work” of video game players. The study offers an example-driven explication of an EMCA perspective on video game play phenomena. The materials are arranged as a “tactical zoom.” We start very much “outside” the game, beginning with a wide view of how massive-multiplayer online games are played within dedicated gaming spaces; here, we find multiple players, machines, and many different sorts of activities going on (besides playing the game). Still remaining somewhat distanced from the play of the game itself, we then take a closer look at the players themselves by examining a notionally simpler setting involving pairs taking part in a football game at a games console. As we draw closer to the technical details of play, we narrow our focus further still to examine a player and spectator situated “at the screen” but jointly analyzing play as the player competes in an online first-person shooter. Finally, we go “inside” the game entirely and look at the conduct of avatars on-screen via screen recordings of a massively multiplayer online game. Having worked through specific examples, we provide an elaboration of a selection of core topics of ethnomethodology and conversation analysis that is used to situate some of the unstated orientations in the presentation of data fragments. In this way, recurrent issues raised in the fragments are shown as coherent, interconnected phenomena. In closing, we suggest caution regarding the way game play phenomena have been analyzed in this study, while remarking on challenges present for the development of further EMCA-oriented research on video game play.     

Amusement machine playing in childhood and adolescence: a comparative analysis of video games and fruit machines

The introduction of video games has met with mixed reviews. In the US, an ongoing debate focusing on the potential problems of video game playing has been taken up by parents, politicians and social scientists. A number of the concerns that have been raised about the playing of video games in the US are very similar to the concerns raised about the playing of fruit machines (slot machines) in the UK. This paper attempts to put the on-going US and UK amusement machine debates into an empirical perspective and attempts a comparative analysis of video games and fruit machines by examining: incidence of play, sex differences and psychological characteristics of machine players, observational findings in arcade setting, the alleged negative consequences of amusement machine playing (i.e. increased aggression and addiction), and an appraisal of amusement machines' positive aspects. Future directions and an expanded version of Brown's (1989) developmental model of a pathology of man-machine relationships are also discussed.