Gender gap matters in maternal mortality in low and lower-middle-income countries: A study of the global Gender Gap Index

Reducing maternal mortality has been a crucial part of the global development agenda. According to modernisation theory, the effect of gender equality on maternal health may differ depending on a country’s economic development status. We explored the correlation between the Global Gender Gap Index (GGI) provided by the World Economic Forum and the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) obtained from the World Development Indicators database of the World Bank. The relationships between each score in the GGI, including its four sub-indices (measuring gender gaps in economic participation, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment), and the MMR were analysed. When the countries were stratified by gross national income per capita, the low and lower-middle-income countries had lower scores in the GGI, and lower scores in the economic participation, educational attainment, and political empowerment sub-indices than the high-income group. Among the four sub-indices, the educational attainment sub-index showed a significant inverse correlation with the MMR in low and lower-middle-income countries when controlling for the proportion of skilled birth attendance and public share of health expenditure. This finding suggests that strategic efforts to reduce the gender gap in educational attainment could lead to improvements in maternal health in low and lower-middle-income countries.     

对新疆喀什莎车县孕产妇死亡现状的分析

目的 对新疆喀什莎车县孕产妇死亡的主要影响因素进行分析。方法 通过妇幼保健服务网络收集2007年10月1日到2012年9月30日发生在新疆喀什莎车县的孕产妇死亡个案；对该县从事孕产期医疗保健服务业务和管理人员进行定性访谈。结果 5年内该县孕产妇死亡共75例，死亡率从2008年的123．17／10万逐步下降到2012年的69．25／10万，下降幅度达43．78％。死亡孕产妇中98．67％是维吾尔族，92．00％文化程度为初中及以下，42．67％的死亡孕产妇在整个孕期未接受产前检查。孕产妇死亡原因前3位依次为产科出血（48．00％）、妊娠期高血压疾病（29．34％）和羊水栓塞（8．00％）。整体卫生人力资源的缺乏及产科技术水平相对落后，影响了孕产期医疗保健服务提供的有效性，而当地社会经济、地理交通、文化习俗等因素又进一步制约了孕产期保健服务的利用。结论 5年来该地区孕产妇死亡率显著下降，产科出血和妊娠期高血压疾病是孕产妇主要死亡原因，该地区的孕产期保健服务提供相对不足和服务利用率较低，影响了孕产妇死亡率的进一步下降。     

Political determinants of progress in the MDGs in Sub-Saharan Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) lagged furthest behind in achieving targets for the millennium development goals (MDG). We investigate the hypothesis that its slow progress is influenced by political factors. Longitudinal data on three health MDG indicators: under-five mortality, maternal mortality and HIV prevalence rates were collated from 1990 to 2012 in 48 countries. Countries were grouped into geo-political and eco-political groups. Groupings were based on conflict trends in geographical regions and the International Monetary Fund’s classification of SSA countries based on gross national income and development assistance respectively. Cumulative progress in each group was derived and main effects tested using ANOVA. Correlation analysis was conducted between political variables – POLITY 2, fragile state index (FSI), voter turnout rates, civil liberty scores (CLS) and the health variables. Our results suggest a significant main effect of eco-political and geo-political groups on some of the health variables. Political conflict as measured by FSI and political participation as measured by CLS were stronger predictors of slow progress in reducing under-five mortality rates and maternal mortality ratios. Our findings highlight the need for further research on political determinants of mortality in SSA. Cohesive effort should focus on strengthening countries’ political, economic and social capacities in order to achieve sustainable goals beyond 2015.     

The emergence of political priority for safe motherhood in Honduras

Each year an estimated 500,000 to 600,000 women die due to complications from childbirth, making this one of the leading causes of death globally for women in their reproductive years. In 1987 a global initiative was launched to address the problem, but few developing countries since then have experienced a documented significant decline in maternal mortality levels. Honduras represents an exception. Between 1990 and 1997 the country's maternal mortality ratio--the number of deaths due to complications during pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period per 100,000 live births--declined 40% from 182 to 108, one of the largest reductions ever documented in such a short time span in the developing world. This paper draws on three political science literatures--constructivist international relations theory, policy transfer and agenda-setting--to explain how political priority for safe motherhood emerged in Honduras, a factor that underpinned the decline. Central to the explanation is the unusually cooperative relationship that developed between international donors and national health officials, resulting in effective transfer of policy and institutionalization of the cause within the domestic political system. The paper draws out implications of the case for understanding the political dynamics of health priority generation in developing countries.     

2000～2004年西安市孕产妇死亡率及原因分析

目的通过孕产妇死亡资料的分析,为进一步降低孕产妇死亡率提供科学的依据。方法采用回顾性研究的方法,对2000～2004年来西安市孕产妇死亡情况进行分析。结果5年来西安市孕产妇死亡率为30.92/10万～50.51/10万。产科出血居死因顺位第一位,从2002年起,妊娠期高血压疾病所占死亡比例开始升高,2003年和2004年分别居死因第三位和第二位。结论西安市孕产妇死亡率与39/10万的目标仍有很大差距,要进一步降低全市孕产妇死亡率,必须加强孕产妇的保健管理。     

“降消”干预对孕产妇死亡的影响

目的研究2005—2011年影响深圳市孕产妇死亡率(Maternal Mortailty Ratio,MMR)下降的相关因素,总结推广确保母婴安全的有效干预措施。方法从深圳市妇幼卫生监测系统提取2005—2011年的孕产妇死亡资料,并研究参加死亡个案的评审资料,采用回顾性对比分析法。结果 (1)深圳市全人口的活产数从2005年的93599人次上升到2011年的181969人次,增加了94.41%;孕产妇死亡率从2005年的49.72/10万下降到2011年的9.89/10万,下降了81.00%,死亡率平均下降速度为11.56%;其中流动孕产妇死亡率从2005年的67.91/10万下降到2011年的12.74/10万。(2)2006—2011年间全人口孕产妇死亡170例,其中流动孕产妇124例(72.94%);死亡孕产妇中初中以下文化程度占80.59%;保健次数在1次以下的占75.88%(全部为流动孕产妇);30.00%的孕产妇死亡发生在非合法分娩地点;(3)直接产科因素造成的死亡有119例(流动孕产妇占55.88%);非产科原因导致的死亡有42例(流动孕产妇占14.12%)。主要死因排序:产科出血(23.53%)、羊水栓塞(15.88%)、妊娠期高血压疾病(14.70%)、异位妊娠(11.18%)和妊娠合并心脏病(7.05%)。常住孕产妇死因排序:异位妊娠(5.88%)、羊水栓塞(3.53%)、妊娠期高血压疾病(3.53%)、妊娠合并脑血管意外(2.94%)、妊娠合并肝脏和合并感染性疾病(2.35%)。流动孕产妇死因排序是:产科出血(21.76%)、羊水栓塞(12.35%)、妊娠期高血压疾病(11.18%)、异位妊娠(5.29%)和妊娠合并心脏病(5.88%);(4)2005年以后深圳市采取了一系列干预措施来保障母婴安全,促使全市全人口孕产妇死亡率显著下降,直接产科因素导致的死亡呈逐渐下降趋势,出血死亡专率从2005年的11.75/10万下降到2011年的3.84/10万;子宫破裂死因构成比从2006—2008年的2.94%下降到2009—2011年的0。结论 (1)"降消"项目实施后,深圳市孕产妇死亡率显著下降,显示了采取一系列干预措施的有效性。(2)社会保险制度完善、逐渐实现全人口免费孕产期保健服务将是进一步降低孕产妇死亡率的有效举措。     

危重孕产妇管理与孕产妇死亡防控

孕产妇死亡率(MMR)是衡量一个国家或地区妇女健康状况和社会经济发展的重要指标之一。随着社会经济的发展与孕产妇健康水平的提高,孕产妇死亡已成为极低概率事件,尤其是在发达国家,仅仅使用孕产妇死亡及MMR作为终末指标,已无法全面评价和反映孕产妇医疗保健过程的质量和妇幼健康事业的发展现状,难以为改善孕产妇医疗保健政策及策略的制订,提供有效参考信息。对于将危重孕产妇的临床管理作为导致孕产妇死亡的动态过程和前期指标,这对强化危重孕产妇管理,进而降低MMR,具有重要临床意义。笔者拟就全球近年危重孕产妇管理、救治现状及其最新研究进展进行阐述,旨在为促进我国危重孕产妇应急管理及救治体系的建设和完善提供参考,从而有效提高危重孕产妇急救效率和质量,切实降低MMR。     

京沪妇女保健人员素质适宜程度比较

目的分析2000—2017年京沪妇女保健人员素质不足严重程度及孕产妇死亡率的变化趋势,明确两地差异,探讨妇女保健人员素质适宜程度。方法收集1995—2017年所有涉及京沪妇女保健资源问题的文献,系统筛选涉及妇女保健人员素质主题的有关文献,进而计算妇女保健人员素质不足严重程度评分。上海纳入165篇文献,北京纳入147篇。运用Spearman相关、线性回归等方法分析妇女保健人员素质不足严重程度与孕产妇死亡率的关系。结果北京妇女保健人员素质不足严重程度从2000年的3.53分降至2017年的3.12分,上海则由3.70分降至2.12分。上海孕产妇死亡率与妇女保健人员素质不足严重程度相关有统计学意义(r=0.758,P<0.01)。上海的回归方程有统计学意义(P<0.01)。结论京沪两地妇女保健人员素质不断提高,上海妇女保健人员素质在孕产妇死亡率降低中发挥更大作用,但人员专业能力仍需进一步提升;适宜的妇女保健体系应"人员能力胜任工作需要";验证了量化妇女保健人员素质的可行性。     

Contextual determinants of maternal mortality in rural Pakistan

Maternal mortality is high in Pakistan, particularly in the rural areas which have poor access to health services. We investigated the risk factors associated with maternal mortality in sixteen rural districts of Balochistan and the North-West Frontier (NWFP) provinces of Pakistan. We designed a nested case–control study comprising 261 cases (maternal deaths reported during last five years) and 9135 controls (women who survived a pregnancy during last five years). Using contextual analysis, we estimated the interactions between the biological risk factors of maternal mortality and the district-level indicators of health services. Women under 19 or over 39 yr of age, those having their first birth, and those having a previous history of fetal loss were at greater risk of maternal death. Staffing patterns of peripheral health facilities in the district and accessibility of essential obstetric care (EOC) were significantly associated with maternal mortality. These indicators also modified the effects of the biological risk factors of maternal mortality. For example, nulliparous women living in the under-served districts were at greater risk than those living in the better-served districts. Our results are consistent with several studies which have pointed out the role of health services in the causation of maternal mortality. Many such studies have implicated distance to hospital (an indicator of access to EOC) and lack of prenatal care as major determinants of maternal mortality. We conclude that better staffing of peripheral health facilities and improved access to EOC could reduce the risk of maternal mortality among women in rural Balochistan and the NWFP.     

湘鄂两地妇女保健领域计划与评价机制健全程度研究

目的综合比较湘鄂两地妇女保健领域计划与评价机制健全程度,分析其与孕产妇死亡率的相关性。方法系统收集湘鄂两地妇女保健领域有关计划与评价机制健全程度的政策文件和文献年鉴,运用Spearman相关和单因素线性回归分析其与孕产妇死亡率之间的关系。结果2008-2017年,湘鄂两地计划与评价机制健全程度分别由18.32%、19.46%上升到41.52%、51.31%,湘鄂两地妇女保健领域计划与评价机制健全程度均呈上升趋势,其中湖北优于湖南,并且均与孕产妇死亡率呈负相关(r=-0.973、-0.994,P<0.01,调整R^2=0.882、0.864)。结论湘鄂两地妇女保健领域的计划与评价机制已基本完备,但两地仍需在妇女保健工作中紧密关注问题范围、落实相关各方责任和构建敏感指标,制定科学的考核评价标准,促进中长期目标更好落实。