产瘫后肩关节内旋挛缩畸形的手术治疗

目的：介绍用肩胛下肌起点剥离术及前路松解术，治疗产瘫后肩关节内旋挛缩后遗症的方法及疗效。方法：对３６例经盂肱角测定、肩关节中立位被动外旋及Ｘ线诊断为肩关节内旋挛缩的患儿，采用肩胛下肌起点剥离或止点延长、关节复位及继发性畸形纠正等手术进行治疗。用Ｍａｌｅｔ评分及Ｇｉｌｂｅｒｔ分级两项定量评价系统来评价术前、术后功能。结果：术后随访半年，３２例有效，有效率为８８．８％。年龄愈小疗效愈佳。４例无效者，３例术前无屈肘功能，提示臂丛上干恢复差；１例肩胛下肌止点切断后未作重建。结论：肩胛下肌起点剥离术或前路松解术，是治疗产瘫后肩内旋挛缩的有效方法，疗效与患儿年龄及臂丛上干的恢复程度密切相关     

大龄产瘫肩关节内旋挛缩畸形的两种术式比较

目的 初步探讨前路软组织松解加肱骨旋转截骨术和单纯肩关节前路松解术治疗大龄产瘫后肩关节内旋挛缩畸形的疗效.方法 1999年8月～2007年1月,对32例大龄产瘫后肩关节内旋挛缩畸形的患者,其中17例采用前路软组织松解加肱骨旋转截骨术,另15例采用单纯肩关节前路松解术.结果 术后随访1～9年,按Mallet评分方法评定:前路软组织松解+肱骨旋转截骨(A组)术后平均得分从术前的8.5分上升到1 1.0分;单纯肩关节前路松解(B组)术后平均得分从术前的7.7分上升到8.7分.按Gilbert分级方法评定:A组术后平均级别由术前的2.0级上升到术后的4.0级;B组术后平均级别由术前的2.0级上升到术后的2.8级.结论 肱骨旋转截骨是治疗大龄产瘫后肩关节内旋挛缩畸形的有效方法.     

产瘫后肩关节内旋挛缩发生机制的解剖学研究

目的　比较支配肩胛下肌及其拮抗肌的神经在臂丛根（干）部的来源,观察肩胛下肌营养动脉的来源及其在肌肉内的分布特点,为阐明产瘫肩胛下肌挛缩的发生机制提供解剖学基础。方法　对32侧成人尸体的肩胛下肌及其拮抗肌的支配神经作逆行显微解剖分离,追踪其神经根（干）来源,计算来自臂丛各根（干）部分的构成比均值;观察肩胛下肌的动脉血供以比较肩胛下肌上部和下部血管数量和分布的差异。结果　支配肩胛下肌支配神经的纤维主要来源于臂丛上中干,上干占(81.61±6.85)%,中干占(18.39±6.85)%;而支配拮抗肌的神经纤维全部来源于上干。自肩胛下肌上部进入的营养动脉在数量和口径上都大于下部（t     

肱骨旋转截骨治疗大龄产瘫后肩关节内旋挛缩畸形

目的初步探讨肱骨旋转截骨治疗大龄产瘫后肩关节内旋挛缩畸形的疗效。方法2000年10月起，对17例肩胛下肌挛缩型大龄产瘫后肩关节内旋挛缩畸形的患者，采用肱骨旋转截骨术进行治疗。并用Mallet评分及Gilbert分级两项评价系统来评价术前、术后的功能。结果术后17例获得1年以上的随访。按改良Mallet评分法评分：7～8分3例，9～10分4例，11～14分10例；平均得分从术前的8．5分上升到11．0分。术后按Gilbert分级：1级1例，2级2例，3级4例，4级10例；平均级别由术前的2级上升到术后的4级。结论肱骨旋转截骨术是治疗大龄产瘫后肩关节内旋挛缩畸形的有效方法。     

The role of subscapularis muscle denervation in the pathogenesis of shoulder internal rotation contracture after neonatal brachial plexus palsy: A study in a rat model

We assessed the role of subscapularis muscle denervation in the development of shoulder internal rotation contracture in neonatal brachial plexus injury. Seventeen newborn rats underwent selective denervation of the subscapular muscle. The rats were evaluated at weekly intervals to measure passive shoulder external rotation. After 4 weeks, the animals were euthanized. The subscapularis thickness was measured using 7.2T MRI axial images. The subscapularis muscle was then studied grossly, and its mass was registered. The fiber area and the area of fibrosis were measured using collagen‐I inmunostained muscle sections. Significant progressive decrease in passive shoulder external rotation was noted with a mean loss of 58° at four weeks. A significant decrease in thickness and mass of the subscapularis muscles in the involved shoulders was also found with a mean loss of 69%. Subscapularis muscle fiber size decreased significantly, while the area of fibrosis remained unchanged. Our study shows that subscapularis denervation, per se, could explain shoulder contracture after neonatal brachial plexus injury, though its relevance compared to other pathogenic factors needs further investigation. © 2014 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 32:1675–1679, 2014.     

产瘫肩关节挛缩后遗症的诊断

目的：对产瘫患儿肩关节功能作定量和定性检查，以明确肩关节功能障碍是因主动肌的无力抑或是拮抗肌和关节囊的挛缩所致。方法：对４０例肩关节功能障碍而肱二头肌肌力达Ｍ３以上的产瘫患儿，采用Ｍａｌｅｔ评分，Ｇｉｌｂｅｒｔ分级，盂肱角测量，肩关节中立位被动外旋，翼状肩胛检查，肌电图及Ｘ线诊断等检查手段，综合评价其肩关节功能。结果：３８例肩关节功能障碍是由于拮抗肌或关节囊挛缩引起，其中内旋挛缩３５例（合并肩关节后关节囊挛缩１４例），肩关节下部挛缩３例。另２例肩外展不能是因主动肌无力所致。结论：产瘫患儿有较好的但不同步的神经恢复是产生各种肩关节挛缩后遗症的主要原因。早期诊断有助于及时治疗和预防肩关节继发性病变的发生     

旋转截骨矫形手术在分娩性臂丛损伤治疗中的应用

目的　评价肱骨及桡骨旋转截骨术治疗分娩性臂丛损伤(产瘫)肩肘后遗症的价值。方法　1999年8月至2000年12月,对8例产瘫肩肘后遗症患儿（肩关节外旋挛缩2例,内旋挛缩1例,前臂旋后挛缩并发桡骨小头脱位5例）施行肱骨内旋截骨、外旋截骨、及前臂旋前截骨等手术,并经术后3～16个月(平均8个月)的随访。术后肩关节功能采用Mallet评分、前臂功能采用旋前位置角度的改善作为评价标准。结果　2例行肱骨内旋截骨者,1例按Mallet评分,术前术后的改变为肩外展3→3,外旋4→4,手到颈后4→3,手到背2→4,手到嘴2→4;另1例因感染及螺钉断裂致骨不连行内固定手术后尚在康复中。1例行肱骨外旋截骨者,按Mallet评分,术前术后改变为肩外展2→3,外旋2→4,手到颈后2→3,手到背4→3,手到嘴2→3。5例行桡骨旋前截骨者,术后前臂均处于旋前30°位置,功能及外观均获得改善。结论　肱骨及桡骨旋转截骨矫形手术在产瘫肩肘挛缩后遗症的治疗中具有一定的应用价值。     

Classification of impairment of shoulder abduction in obstetric brachial plexus palsy and its clinical significance

Shoulder abduction was studied in 25 cases of obstetric brachial plexus palsy (OBPP). According to muscle function, electromyographic features and X-ray examination, impairment of shoulder abduction could be classified into dynamic, resistant or combined types. Five cases were the dynamic type, which was characterized by paralysis of the shoulder abductors. Fifteen cases were categorized as the resistant type, with contracture of the subscapularis muscle, co-contraction of latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles and secondary disorders of the shoulder joint. Five cases were classified as the combined type in which there were both dynamic and resistant factors. Appropriate management and surgical procedures in the shoulder affected by OBPP depend on the pathological classification.     

Release of the subscapularis for internal rotation contracture and pain after anterior repair for recurrent anterior dislocation of the shoulder.

Ten patients who had an internal rotation contracture and pain after an anterior repair for recurrent dislocation of the shoulder were treated by release of the subscapularis muscle. For six of the patients, radiographs demonstrated severe osteoarthrotic changes in the shoulder as well. The release was done an average of eleven years after the original procedure, which, for most patients, had been a Putti-Platt repair. After release of the subscapularis, each patient had less pain in the shoulder and an average increase of 27 degrees of external rotation. Release of the subscapularis can offer relief of pain and of functional limitations associated with the symptoms caused by an internal rotation contracture after an anterior repair of the shoulder.     

Neurophysiological prediction of outcome in obstetric lesions of the brachial plexus

Seventy-three children with slow recovery after obstetric lesion of the brachial plexus (biceps function returning after 3 months of age) and with relatively favourable neurophysiological investigation were followed until a mean age of 4.3 years. Predictions for C6 and C7 were confirmed in 92% and 96% of the cases, respectively. Predictions for C5 were confirmed in a smaller proportion of cases (78%). The inability to record nerve action potentials for C5, and the high frequency of secondary shoulder pathology are reasons for this. In all, 33 of the 73 children came to operation for medial rotation contracture (11) or posterior subluxation/dislocation (21); there was one case operated for inferior contracture.     

手术复位治疗产瘫肩关节内旋挛缩伴盂肱关节后脱位存在的问题及改进

目的观察肩关节前路松解复位、后路关节囊紧缩及关节孟后路截骨治疗产瘫肩关节内旋挛缩畸形伴肩关节后脱位的临床效果。方法经CT或MRI检查确诊为孟肱关节脱位的7例产瘫并发肩关节内旋挛缩畸形患者，男2例，女5例，年龄1．4～4岁，平均2岁2个月。孟肱关节畸形按照Water的标准进行分型，Ⅳ型5例，Ⅴ型2例。2例行肩关节前路松解复位，肩关节最大外旋位固定6周；5例同时行后路关节囊松解、紧缩及关节孟截骨，将后倾的关节孟向前掀起，取三角形髂骨块植骨，术后行石膏固定4周。结果2例单纯行前路松解复位者术后分别随访48，60个月，Mallent评分分别由术前6分至术后10分；CT及X线平片复查示，肱骨头前脱位，关节孟后侧部分仍后倾。5例同时后路行关节孟截骨，术后随访36～49个月，平均3年4个月，Mallant评分由术前平均5。4分至术后8．6分；经CT及X线平片复查，孟肱关节复位良好，关节孟包容良好，关节孟后倾纠正。结论对于产瘫肩关节内旋挛缩导致的肩关节脱位，前路松解复位、后路关节囊松解、紧缩及关节孟后路截骨，可使脱位的孟肱关节复位并恢复关节孟的包容同时改善其肩关节功能。     

Arthroscopic release of shoulder contracture secondary to birth palsy: an early report on findings and surgical technique

Purpose:Internal rotation contractures are common in children with external rotation weakness secondary to brachial plexus birth palsy. Surgical release of the contracture, with or without latissimus dorsi transfer, is an established treatment through a variety of open methods. This article describes an arthroscopic method of contracture release in this patient population.Type of Study:New surgical technique.Methods:Forty-one children with contractures, ranging in age from 8 months to 12 years (mean, 3.5 years), underwent arthroscopic release of the shoulder with a 2.7-mm arthroscope used for visualization. The release consisted of a subscapularis tenotomy and release of the anterior capsular ligaments. Eighteen children underwent a subscapularis release as an isolated procedure. Twenty-three of the children also underwent latissimus dorsi transfer.Results:Arthroscopic release was successful in achieving at least 45° of passive external rotation at surgery in all but one case. This case was in the oldest child, a 12-year-old with severe deformity, who needed an open release. No other complications were noted. Glenohumeral deformity was common. The primary contracted elements were the subscapularis and the anterior capsular ligaments.Conclusions:Arthroscopic contracture release was effective in the restoration of passive external rotation in children with internal rotation contractures secondary to birth palsy.     

The relationship between the strength of supination of the forearm and rotation of the shoulder

In children with obstetric brachial plexus palsy (OBPP) who develop an internal rotation deformity of the shoulder, release of subscapularis improves the range of external rotation of the shoulder and the strength of supination of the forearm. We studied the strength of supination in 35 healthy adult volunteers at 45 degrees of both internal and external rotation. The mean and maximum torques were greater in external than internal rotation by 8.7% and 7.5%, respectively. This was highly significant (p < 0.0001). The increased strength of supination in external rotation is probably because the maximum power of biceps, particularly the long head, may be exerted in this position. In children the difference may be even greater due to anatomical differences causing the dramatic increases in the strength of supination after surgery for OBPP. In adults our findings suggest that the supination exercises which are undertaken after injury or surgery to the forearm or wrist should be performed in external rotation.     

Brachial plexus injury after anterior shoulder dislocation: a case report

Brachial plexus injury is a rare complication of anterior dislocation of the shoulder: nine cases have been reported in the literature. We report a unique case of anterior dislocation of the shoulder with associated brachial plexus palsy involving the posterior and medial cords. This is the first reported case of such an injury. Previous case reports of brachial plexus palsy in association with anterior shoulder dislocation are reviewed. Conservative management affords good recovery from these injuries over a period of up to 18 months.     

An adjustable shoulder abduction orthosis for the post-operative management of tendon transfers: A preliminary study

Transfer of Musculus Latissimus dorsi/M. Teres major to the rotator cuff with or without M. Subscapularis/M. Pectoralis release is a widely used procedure for restoring shoulder abduction and external rotation in squeal of obstetric brachial plexus palsy. After the operation a shoulder abduction orthosis in maximal external rotation and 90 - 100 degrees abduction is utilized following six weeks of immobilization in a shoulder spica cast for protecting the newly transferred muscle from undue elongation. However this in turn may cause contracture of the external rotators. To overcome this problem, a modified shoulder abduction splint with adjustable internal-external rotation/abduction-adduction ranges was developed in the orthotics department of a rehabilitation center. The custom molded adjustable shoulder abduction orthosis is described and the preliminary results are compared with former applications.     

Forearm rotational profile in obstetric brachial plexus injury

Children with obstetric brachial plexus palsy (OBPP) most commonly have weakness of supination. There is little previous information on later progress of forearm rotation movements, although severe supination contracture has been reported in a small proportion of children. The aims of this study were to evaluate forearm rotation after initial recovery from OBPP, to define the relationship with the severity of disease, and to assess which factors might limit rotation. Measurements of active and passive pronation and supination were recorded in 56 children (37 boys and 19 girls) who had had OBPP and did not have full recovery. The mean age was 8 years (minimum, 2.5 years). Care was taken to measure forearm rotation in isolation from shoulder movements. According to the Narakas classification for severity of the original brachial plexus lesion, there were 23 group I cases, 16 group II cases, 11 group III cases, and 6 group IV cases. Twenty-one children underwent reconstructive procedures for shoulder deformity. Mallet scores for shoulder function were available for all patients. Overall pronation was more limited than supination. Active movements were more limited than passive movements. Active pronation was less than normal in 48 children, active supination was less than normal in 36, passive pronation was less than normal in 22, and passive supination was less than normal in 9. Active pronation and active and passive supination were significantly limited in children with worse Mallet scores and in Narakas group IV children. Both active supination and passive supination were decreased in children with more severe elbow flexion contractures. No significant relationship was found between forearm rotation movements and the time of biceps recovery. Many children have persisting limitation of forearm rotation after OBPP. Despite the initial weakness of supination, pronation is more often reduced in the longer term. Patients with more severe OBPP and poorer recovery of shoulder function have greater limitation of forearm rotation.     

Outcome of subscapularis muscle release for shoulder contracture secondary to brachial plexus palsy at birth

Children with unresolved brachial plexus palsy frequently develop a disabling internal rotation contracture of the shoulder. Several surgical options, including soft tissue procedures such as muscle releases and/or transfers, and bone operations such as humeral osteotomy are available to correct this deformity. This study describes the effect of subscapularis muscle release performed in isolation. Thirteen patients (5 boys, 8 girls) were reviewed at an average of 3.5 years after their surgery (range, 2-7 years). Their mean age at operation was 4.7 years (range, 1-8 years). Three children had C5-C6 palsies, 8 had C5-C7 palsies, and 2 had C5-C8 palsies. Postoperatively, patients presented significant gains in shoulder active lateral rotation (+49 degrees, from 5 to 54 degrees), active abduction (+30 degrees, from 63 to 93 degrees), active flexion (+46 degrees, from 98 to 144 degrees), and active extension (+23 degrees, from 7 to 30 degrees). Gains were also observed in passive range of motion, but of a lesser degree. Subscapularis muscle release is a procedure we found to have few significant complications and was highly effective in increasing active range of motion and restoring shoulder function.     

Assessment and treatment of glenohumeral joint deformities in children suffering from upper obstetric brachial plexus palsy

We present our approach to gleno-humeral joint deformities as sequelae from severe upper obstetric brachial plexus palsy. In 50 consecutive children with severe medial rotation contracture of the shoulder after obstetric brachial plexus palsy, we used magnetic resonance imaging to evaluate joint incongruence and dysplasia; showing frequently various deformities of the glenoid, the humeral head and pathologic changes in their relationship. The most severe deformity is true glenohumeral dysplasia. These diagnostic findings might influence our choice and technical details within surgical procedures. We actually evaluate image processing tools (segmentation software) for a better understanding of changes in anatomical structures responsible for this multifactorial joint deformity, limiting lateral and/or medial rotation of the glenohumeral joint in children with obstetric brachial plexus palsy.     

Complete infraclavicular brachial plexus palsy with occlusion of axillary vessels following anterior dislocation of the shoulder joint

Two cases of complete infraclavicular brachial plexus palsy after anterior dislocation of the shoulder joint are reported. Both patients had transient motor brachial plexus paralysis and extensive anesthesia of the whole upper limb. Additionally, one of them had occlusion of the axillary vessels. Vascular recovery occurred immediately after manipulation and reduction of the affected shoulder joint. Neurological recovery occurred 9 to 12 months later in both cases without surgery, other than closed reductions. Such neurological and vascular complications after anterior dislocation of the shoulder joint are unique.     

Late treatment of obstetrical brachial plexus palsy by humeral rotational osteotomy and lengthening with an intramedullary elongation nail

To date, all the authors who have recommended external rotation osteotomy (ERO) in the late treatment of obstetrical brachial plexus palsy (OBPP), have neglected upper limb length discrepancy, which is an another sequelae of OBPP. In this paper, a new technique is reported for the late treatment of OBPP patients with upper limb length discrepancy, in which both humeral external rotation osteotomy (ERO) and lengthening are applied with an intramedullary elongation nail. With this technique, upper limb function is improved through re-orientation of the shoulder arc to a more functional range, and further improvements will be seen in the appearance of the upper limb with the elimination of length discrepancy. It is also advocated that there is a potentiating effect of the humeral lengthening on shoulder movements gained by ERO when the osteotomy is applied above the deltoid insertion, as this allows more lateralized placement of the deltoid insertion.