经眼上静脉途径栓塞海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘

目的 探讨经眼上静脉途径栓塞治疗海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘的临床效果. 方法 对27例海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘患者行经眼上静脉途径栓塞治疗,通过脑血管造影及临床随访来评价临床疗效. 结果 术后即刻造影示瘘口完全闭塞15例,瘘口处血流速度明显减慢12例.11例患者术后眼球水肿一过性加重.随访3月～4年,临床症状消失17例,症状明显缓解10例. 结论 经眼上静脉途径栓塞治疗海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘对部分患者是一种有效的治疗方法 .     

经静脉入路栓塞治疗海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘(附8例报告)

目的探讨经静脉入路栓塞治疗海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘的方法及效果。方法 8例海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘患者,分别经股静脉-岩下窦、股静脉-面静脉-眼上静脉、直接开放眼上静脉入路到达病变侧海绵窦,用GDC可控微弹簧圈和ONXY胶等多种栓塞材料填塞海绵窦,同时闭塞瘘口。结果 7例治疗后即刻造影显示海绵窦和瘘口完全闭塞,临床症状消失。1例虽将海绵窦闭塞,但仍残留翼丛引流,临床症状明显缓解,术后行压颈治疗后症状消失。栓塞术后最常见并发症为头痛伴呕吐及外展神经麻痹,1周后缓解。5例患者术后随访3～26个月症状未见复发,其中4例均于术后3月复查DSA未见异常,1例残留瘘口的患者术后6月行脑血管造影复查,显示残留瘘口消失。结论经静脉入路栓塞是治疗海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘安全、有效的方法。     

Onyx结合微弹簧圈经静脉入路治疗硬脑膜动-静脉瘘

研究背景采取单纯微弹簧圈栓塞供血动脉姑息治疗硬脑膜动静脉瘘的方法,在栓塞血管巢近端供血动脉后,可出现新的供血动脉并可能改变静脉引流途径,从而增加颅内出血风险。闭塞引流静脉是一种十分有效的治疗方法,且经静脉途径闭塞引流静脉成功率较高,本研究尝试经静脉入路注射液体栓塞剂Onyx结合微弹簧圈栓塞治疗硬脑膜动静脉瘘,并探讨其疗效。方法经静脉入路栓塞治疗12例硬脑膜动静脉瘘患者(海绵窦区8例、横窦乙状窦区4例),通过脑血管造影检查及临床随访评价疗效。结果术后即刻全脑血管造影检查瘘口完全闭塞者11例、瘘口处血流速度明显减慢者1例。随访3个月至3年,临床症状完全消失者11例、明显缓解者1例。结论应用液体栓塞剂Onyx结合微弹簧圈经静脉入路栓塞治疗硬脑膜动静脉瘘安全有效。     

静脉入路栓塞治疗海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘

目的总结经静脉入路栓塞治疗海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘的手术经验。方法回顾性分析15例海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘的临床资料,均采用Onyx或联合可脱性弹簧圈填塞病变侧海绵窦,同时闭塞瘘口。经股静脉-岩下窦入路11例,经股静脉-面静脉-眼上静脉入路4例。结果治疗后即刻造影显示海绵窦和瘘口完全闭塞14例,残留少量眼上静脉引流1例(术后6个月复查造影显示残留瘘口消失)。术后眼部症状加重1例,经对症治疗术后6d症状逐渐改善;展神经麻痹1例,自行恢复。随访3～28个月,未见复发病例。结论 Onyx经静脉入路栓塞海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘是安全有效的。     

球囊辅助栓塞硬脑膜动静脉瘘

目的评估球囊辅助栓塞硬脑膜动静脉瘘的临床效果。方法回顾性分析2010年10月至2012年8月收治的17例硬脑膜动静脉瘘患者的临床资料,其中位于横窦、乙状窦区11例,颈静脉孔区4例,上矢状窦区2例;均行球囊辅助栓塞硬脑膜动静脉瘘;6例经动脉途径栓塞,3例经静脉途径栓塞,8例经动脉及静脉相结合途径栓塞。结果 17例患者中,栓塞后即刻造影复查示,瘘口完全消失11例,部分消失6例。17例病人随访3个月~2年,无加重及复发者;瘘口完全消失13例,部分消失4例。结论球囊辅助栓塞硬脑膜动静脉瘘是一种安全、有效的方法。     

经静脉途径栓塞治疗硬脑膜动静脉瘘（附14例报告）

目的 评估经静脉途径栓塞治疗硬脑膜动静脉瘘（DAVF）的有效性。方法 14例DAVF病人,其中海绵窦区8例,横窦、乙状窦区5例,Galen静脉1例,均经静脉途径栓塞。结果 随访时间1个月－4年,临床治愈10例,症状缓解4例。影像学：瘘口完全消失8例;部分消失6例,但血流明显缓慢。结论 经静脉途径栓塞是治疗硬脑膜动静脉瘘安全有效的方法。     

经静脉途径治疗海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘

目的 探讨经静脉途径栓塞治疗海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘的疗效. 方法 经全脑血管造影(DSA)确诊海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘9例.均经静脉途径予以栓塞治疗. 结果 本组9例中治愈8例,症状好转1例,无加重和死亡.随访2个月～3年,无复发及加重者. 结论 静脉途径栓塞治疗硬脑膜动静脉瘘是一种安全、有效的方法 .     

经静脉入路栓塞治疗海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘

目的 探讨经静脉入路栓塞治疗海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘的效果、面临的问题及相应的处理。方法 经股静脉-岩下窦入路和经股静脉-面静脉-眼上静脉入路到达病变侧海绵窦，用GDC、EDC、游离弹簧圈和丝线等多种栓塞材料填塞海绵窦，同时闭塞瘘口。结果 应用两种静脉入路对13例病人的17侧海绵窦进行了栓塞治疗。10例治疗后即刻造影显示海绵窦和瘘口完全闭塞。3例虽将海绵窦闭塞，但仍残留岩下窦的引流(1例)和翼丛引流(2例)。栓塞术后最常见症状为头痛伴呕吐。1例伴有动眼神经麻痹的病例在栓塞治疗后其它眼部症状消失，但动眼神经功能仍未恢复。随访3个月到26个月未见复发。3例残留瘘口的病例均于术后3个月行脑血管造影复查：2例残留瘘口消失，1例仍有翼丛引流。其他病例未行脑血管造影复查。结论 经静脉途径栓塞治疗是海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘的有效方法，应作为首选治疗方法。     

海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘的介入治疗分析

目的 探讨海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘的介入治疗方法及其疗效。方法 回顾性分析2013年1月至2023年1月介入治疗的21例海绵窦区硬膜动静脉瘘的临床资料。结果 经股静脉-岩下窦途径16例，经颈外动脉入路4例，经动静脉联合入路1例；采用弹簧圈联合Onyx-18胶栓塞17例，单纯应用弹簧圈1例，单用Onyx-18胶3例；术后即刻造影显示瘘口完全闭塞18例，次全闭塞3例。术后随访3～12个月，临床治愈17例，好转4例。15例复查造影未见瘘口复发。结论 根据海绵窦区硬脑膜动静瘘血管构筑特征，采用个体化的血管内治疗方案，可以获得满意的临床疗效。     

经岩下窦入路Onyx联合弹簧圈栓塞治疗海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘

目的探讨经岩下窦入路Onyx联合可脱性弹簧圈栓塞治疗海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘的安全性和有效性。方法回顾性分析2010年7月~2013年6月经岩下窦入路Onyx结合弹簧圈栓塞治疗的18例海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘患者的临床资料,评价疗效及手术并发症。结果栓塞后即刻血管造影显示瘘口完全闭塞15例,次全闭塞3例。4例术中出现心动过缓,3例术后出现眶部疼痛。随访3~12个月,所有患者术前症状消失,无复发。结论经岩下窦入路Onyx联合弹簧圈栓塞海绵窦区硬脑膜动静脉瘘疗效确切,安全可靠。     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.