神经内窥镜在垂体腺瘤切除术中的应用

目的探讨神经内窥镜技术在垂体腺瘤切除术中的应用方式及特点。方法在32例垂体腺瘤切除术中使用了神经内窥镜。其中15例采用内镜辅助下眶上“锁孔”入路垂体腺瘤显微切除术,17例采用神经内镜控制下经单鼻孔-蝶窦入路垂体腺瘤切除术。结果本组32例术后无1例死亡,无1例出现颅内出血、视神经损伤、颈内动脉损伤及脑脊液鼻漏等现象。用内镜控制的经单鼻孔-蝶窦入路垂体腺瘤切除术的17例病例中,15例肿瘤全切,1例肿瘤近全切除,1例肿瘤大部分切除。用内镜辅助的经眉切口眶上“锁孔”入路垂体腺瘤显微切除术的15例病例中,14例肿瘤全切,1例肿瘤近全切除。2例病人术后出现一过性多尿。本组32例患者术后随访3～15个月,原有症状均有所改善,异常增高的激素水平均降至正常,MRI检查显示无1例肿瘤复发。结论内镜辅助下经眉切口眶上“锁孔”入路垂体腺瘤显微切除术和内镜控制下经单鼻孔-蝶窦入路垂体腺瘤切除术符合微创原则,术后并发症少,疗效满意。提倡在垂体腺瘤切除术中使用神经内窥镜技术。     

内镜辅助下经眶上锁孔入路手术切除大型垂体腺瘤

目的探讨内镜辅助下经眶上锁孔入路切除大型垂体腺瘤的方法和疗效。方法对25例成人头部固定标本及9具新鲜尸头进行眶上锁孔入路切除大型垂体腺瘤的解剖学观察。并对15例大型垂体腺瘤病人采用内镜辅助下经眶上锁孔入路手术切除肿瘤。结果垂体腺瘤手术中行经眶上锁孔入路可获得与传统显微镜下开颅手术相当的暴露,内镜可将传统开颅手术中显微镜下的非直视视野转变成直视视野。结论内镜辅助经眶上锁孔入路是大型垂体腺瘤的理想术式。     

单鼻孔经蝶与眶上锁孔入路切除垂体腺瘤的显微手术比较

目的比较单鼻孔经蝶与眶上锁孔入路显微手术切除垂体腺瘤的效果。方法手术治疗垂体腺瘤36例,其中采用单鼻孔经蝶入路25例,眶上锁孔入路11例。术中均采用神经内镜辅助技术。结果单鼻孔经蝶入路全切肿瘤22例（88%,22/25）,次全切除3例（12%,3/25）;眶上锁孔入路全切9例（81.8%,9/11）,次全切2例（18.2%,2/11）。术前有视力障碍者,85.7%（18/21）术后视力得到改善,其它临床症状较术前均有明显不同程度的好转,手术效果满意。结论两种不同入路有各自的优点及适应证,术前应根据肿瘤的不同特点选择不同的手术入路。利用神经内镜辅助显微手术有助于提高肿瘤全切率和减少术后并发症。     

经鼻蝶入路神经内镜手术联合眶上外侧入路显微手术治疗大型垂体腺瘤

目的 探讨经鼻蝶入路神经内镜手术同期联合眶上外侧入路显微手术治疗大型垂体腺瘤的方法及效果。方法 回顾性分析2020年5月至2022年4月采用经鼻蝶入路神经内镜手术同期联合眶上外侧入路显微手术切除的5例大型垂体腺瘤的临床资料。结果 术后病理显示生长激素腺瘤2例、无功能腺瘤3例。术后未出现颅内感染、脑脊液漏。1例失访;其余4例肿瘤均切除完全,术后3~6月复查MRI未及复发,激素水平均恢复正常,无需药物替代治疗。结论 经鼻蝶入路神经内镜手术同期联合眶上外侧入路显微手术治疗大型垂体腺瘤的优势明显,肿瘤全切除率高,创伤较小,疗效满意。     

翼点锁孔入路神经内镜辅助下垂体腺瘤显微手术策略

目的 探讨翼点锁孔入路神经内镜辅助下垂体腺瘤显微手术策略.方法 选择翼点锁孔概念,利用神经内镜的辅助技术,对33例鞍区的垂体腺瘤患者先行单纯显微镜辅助下手术切除,然后再联合神经内镜切除肿瘤,比较两种方法的全切率.结果 33例患者中先用显微镜辅助下手术获得全切20例,次全切13例;13例次全切患者再联合神经内镜手术后获得全切8例,次全切5例.联合神经内镜手术获得全切的例数(28例)明显多于单纯显微镜手术(20例),差异有统计学意义(P<0.05).结论 利用翼点锁孔入路,神经内镜辅助下行垂体腺瘤显微手术能够克服手术中的死角.提高手术切除率,减少肿瘤残余,保护垂体柄,减少并发症,大大提高手术的效果.     

经蝶入路神经内镜手术联合和眶上入路锁孔手术治疗复杂鞍旁病变体会

目的 探讨经蝶入路神经内镜手术联合眶上锁孔手术治疗复杂性鞍旁病变的疗效。方法 回顾性分析2016年3月至2021年7月采用经蝶入路神经内镜手术联合眶上锁孔手术治疗的9例复杂性鞍旁病变的临床资料。结果 病变全切除6例，次全切除2例，部分切除1例。术后病理显示垂体腺瘤7例，颅咽管瘤2例。8例术前视力损害中，术后视力改善6例，稳定1例，恶化1例。术后2例成形垂体前叶功能减退，1例发生暂时性尿崩症。未发生颅内出血和脑脊液漏。术后随访6～41个月，平均19.2个月；未见肿瘤复发。结论 经蝶入路神经内镜手术联合眶上锁孔手术治疗复杂性鞍旁病变，是一种安全、有效的方法。     

神经内镜辅助下经鼻蝶入路治疗鞍区肿瘤

目的探讨神经内镜辅助下经鼻蝶入路切除鞍区肿瘤的方法和优势。方法回顾性分析30例鞍区肿瘤病人的临床资料,垂体腺瘤26例(其中无功能垂体腺瘤6例、泌乳素瘤16例、垂体生长激素腺瘤4例),拉克囊肿1例,胆脂瘤1例,脑膜瘤1例,颅咽管瘤1例。采用神经内镜辅助下经鼻蝶入路手术切除肿瘤。结果肿瘤全切27例,部分切除3例。术后3例发生脑脊液鼻漏,经腰大池持续引流后痊愈。无死亡病例。随访3~6个月,病人恢复良好。结论在神经内镜辅助下经鼻蝶入路治疗鞍区肿瘤,较单纯的显微镜手术治疗创伤更小,肿瘤全切率更高。     

神经导航辅助下经单鼻孔蝶窦入路显微手术切除垂体腺瘤 (附26例临床报告)

目的探讨神经导航辅助下经单鼻孔蝶窦入路显微手术切除垂体腺瘤的初步体会、注意事项及该手术入路优缺点。方法对26例垂体腺瘤患者采用神经导航辅助下经单鼻孔蝶窦入路显微手术治疗。结果术后经MRI检查证实全切除20例,4例次全切除,2例巨大腺瘤大部切除,术后均未出现严重并发症。结论神经导航辅助下经单鼻孔蝶窦入路显微手术切除垂体腺瘤,手术快捷、安全、创伤小,符合微创治疗趋势。     

眶上和经眶上锁孔入路在鞍区显微手术中的应用比较

目的比较眶上入路与经眶上入路在鞍区显微外科手术中的应用情况。方法总结25例鞍区肿瘤的手术经验,其中垂体腺瘤9例,颅咽管瘤6例,鞍结节脑膜瘤3例,蛛网膜囊肿4例,Rathke囊肿2例,上皮样囊肿1例。采用眶上入路17例,经眶上入路8例。部分病人术中采用神经内镜辅助技术。结果术后复查MRI,示眶上入路全切除13例,次全切除3例,部分切除1例;经眶上入路全切除和次全切除各为4例。眶上入路开颅操作简便,适用于大多数鞍区病变的手术。经眶上入路将锁孔技术与颅底外科技术结合运用,不仅将额叶的牵拉降至最低限度,而且对鞍区的显露较眶上入路视角向上增加了20°,操作径路也相应缩短。结论眶上入路适用于大多数鞍区肿瘤和囊性病变的手术切除,经眶上入路则适用于体积较大的鞍区肿瘤。内镜辅助技术可帮助术中确认手术效果,减少肿瘤残留机会。     

经单鼻孔蝶窦入路神经内镜下切除垂体腺瘤

目的 介绍经单鼻孔蝶窦入路神经内镜下切除垂体腺瘤的经验及体会。方法 对16例垂体腺瘤病人采用经单鼻孔蝶窦入路行神经内镜下垂体腺瘤切除术，其中微腺瘤3例，大腺瘤12例，巨型腺瘤1例。功能性腺瘤14例，其中PRL腺瘤6例，GH腺瘤4例，混合性（PRL GH）腺瘤4例；无功能性腺瘤2例。结果 内镜下全切除肿瘤14例，近全切1例，大部切除1例；无死亡，无脑出血、视神经损伤、脑脊液鼻漏及其他鼻腔并发症发生；2例术后出现一过性多尿，经治疗术后1周恢复正常。随访3-6个月，原有症状均有所改善，异常增高的激素水平均降至正常，MRI检查显示下一例肿瘤复发。结论 内镜下经单鼻孔蝶窦入路垂体腺瘤切除术具有深部照明好，鼻腔结构损伤小，切除肿瘤彻底，术后并发症少，病人恢复快等优点。     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.