沉默吲哚胺2,3-双加氧酶2基因对黑色素瘤细胞B16-BL6增殖、迁移和侵袭的影响

目的:探讨沉默吲哚胺2,3-双加氧酶2(IDO2)基因对小鼠黑色素瘤B16-BL6细胞增殖、迁移及侵袭等生物学行为的影响。方法:IDO2-siRNA转染体外培养的黑色素瘤细胞B16-BL6,应用real-time PCR和Western blot检测IDO2和IDO1基因的表达;平板集落形成实验检测IDO2基因沉默对肿瘤细胞增殖的影响;细胞划痕实验和Transwell小室细胞迁移实验观察IDO2对肿瘤细胞迁移的影响;Transwell小室侵袭实验观察肿瘤细胞侵袭能力。结果:沉默B16-BL6细胞中IDO2基因能使细胞单集落形成密度降低,划痕迁移变慢,Transwell小室细胞迁移数减少,侵袭细胞数减少。结论:沉默IDO2可以影响黑色素瘤细胞B16-BL6的增殖、迁移和侵袭能力。     

阿苯达唑对小鼠皮下黑色素瘤内浸润T细胞频率和功能的影响

目的 探讨抗寄生虫药物阿苯达唑（albendazole,ABZ）对小鼠皮下黑色素瘤内T细胞浸润和功能的影响。方法 C57BL/6小鼠腹部皮下接种B16F10-luciferase黑色素瘤细胞。荷瘤4 d后,将肿瘤体积大小基本一致的小鼠随机分成2组,每组5只。ABZ组每天给予100 mg/kg的ABZ溶液进行灌胃治疗;Control组给予等量体积PBS灌胃。期间测量并记录荷瘤小鼠肿瘤生长大小,于第12天处死小鼠。对肿瘤进行称重,并利用流式细胞仪分析小鼠脾脏、引流淋巴结、外周血和肿瘤中浸润T细胞的差异。结果 相较于对照组小鼠,ABZ处理组小鼠肿瘤体积较小,重量较轻;ABZ处理组小鼠脾脏、引流淋巴结、外周血中CD4⁺T细胞和CD8⁺T细胞频率无明显差异,但肿瘤内CD4⁺T和CD8⁺T细胞浸润增多;同时我们发现肿瘤内浸润的耗竭前体CD8+T细胞增多,且CD8⁺T细胞分泌IFN-γ和Granzyme B能力增强,而Treg细胞减少。结论 抗寄生虫药物ABZ能够通过增加皮下瘤体内CD4     

Galectin-9缺失对小鼠肿瘤免疫应答的影响

目的在小鼠肿瘤模型中探讨半乳糖凝集素-9(Galectin-9,G9)缺失对肿瘤生长和肿瘤转移的影响,并初步探讨其免疫学机制。方法分别建立B16F10黑色素瘤G9KO-/-C57BL/6小鼠模型和EG7-OVA淋巴瘤G9KO-/-C57BL/6小鼠模型,监测肿瘤体积,绘制肿瘤生长曲线;观察B16F10黑色素瘤G9KO-/-C57BL/6小鼠肺部肿瘤模型转移情况,统计黑色素瘤结节数量;取肿瘤浸润的引流淋巴结(draining lymph node,DLN)流式检测CD8+T淋巴细胞频率及表型。结果 G9KO小鼠相对于WT小鼠能明显抵制B16F10(P0.05)和EG7(P0.05)肿瘤的生长,G9KO小鼠能显著抑制黑色素瘤肺部转移(P0.001);流式检测显示G9KO小鼠能明显下调功能耗竭CD8+T淋巴细胞(Tim-3+,PD-1+Tim-3+)频率(P0.05,P0.001)。结论 Galectin-9的缺失能延缓肿瘤的生长,抑制肿瘤的转移,减轻CD8+T细胞耗竭,增强抗肿瘤免疫。     

黑色素瘤细胞来源的外泌体通过上调Treg的CXCR3促进其趋化

目的检测黑色素瘤细胞通过外泌体途径上调CD4+CD25+调节性T细胞(regulatory T cell,Treg)CXCR3(chemokine receptor 3)受体表达,提高Treg向肿瘤免疫抑制微环境趋化的能力。方法以超速离心法纯化小鼠黑色素瘤细胞B16上清中的外泌体,透射电镜检测外泌体形态,Western blot检测外泌体标记性蛋白的表达。B16细胞荷瘤小鼠。流式细胞术检测荷瘤小鼠(1、2、3周)和尾静脉注射外泌体后脾脏、肿瘤内Treg的频率。磁珠法分离纯化小鼠的Treg;Transwell实验检测Treg的趋化能力。Western blot检测Treg的CXCR3、p-Smad2的表达水平。结果电镜结果显示,B16细胞释放的外泌体为直径30～100 nm的圆形或类圆形结构;高表达标志性蛋白CD63和Alix,不表达Calnexin。在外泌体刺激下Treg的趋化能力显著增强,但可被抗CXCR3的单克隆抗体阻断。Western blot结果显示外泌体可提高Treg细胞内Smad2的磷酸化,并上调CXCR3的表达水平,Treg的趋化能力随之增强。结论 B16细胞来源的外泌体通过Smad2磷酸化途径提高了Treg细胞内CXCR3的表达,进而增强其趋化能力。     

体外扩增的Treg细胞抑制NK细胞介导的抗肿瘤免疫

目的研究CD4+CD25+调节性T细胞(regulatory T cells,Tregs)对NK细胞肿瘤杀伤力的影响及Treg细胞介导的抗肿瘤免疫抑制的机制;初步探讨过继输注NK细胞逆转Treg细胞介导的抗肿瘤免疫抑制的作用。方法免疫磁珠分离法(MACS)分离得小鼠脾脏Treg细胞及NK细胞,用流式细胞术检测其纯度。以CD3/CD28单克隆抗体磁珠和重组小鼠白介素2(rm IL-2)联合刺激体外扩增Treg细胞,重组小鼠白介素15(rm IL-15)、rm IL-2以及氢化可的松联合刺激体外扩增NK细胞。将扩增后Treg细胞及NK细胞按不同比例混合淋巴细胞培养,MTT比色法检测NK细胞的杀伤活性。将B16-F10小鼠黑色瘤细胞输注至Balb/c小鼠体内建立肺移植瘤模型[1],将荷瘤小鼠分为4组:A组单独接种B16-F10小鼠黑色瘤细胞;B组接种Treg细胞+B16-F10黑色素瘤细胞;C组接种B16-F10黑色素瘤细胞+NK细胞;D组接种Treg细胞+B16-F10黑色素瘤细胞+NK细胞。MTT比色法测定各实验组小鼠脾脏NK细胞的杀伤活性,并比较不同处理组小鼠肺部肿瘤结节数目。结果体外扩增后的Treg细胞对新鲜分选及扩增后的NK细胞活性均具有明显抑制作用(P0.05),且抑制作用呈剂量依赖关系;A组荷瘤小鼠NK细胞活性低于正常小鼠,且B组荷瘤小鼠NK细胞活性较A组进一步降低(P0.05);D组荷瘤小鼠NK细胞活性高于A组和B组荷瘤小鼠,但仍低于正常小鼠组(P0.05)。B组荷瘤小鼠肺部移植瘤数目(105.33±10.97)较A组明显增多(17±4.58)(P0.01);C组荷瘤小鼠肺部移植瘤数目(2.00±1.00)较A组(17±4.58)明显减少(P=0.037);D组荷瘤小鼠肺移植瘤数目(79.00±8.54)较B组明显降低(105.33±10.97)(P=0.030),但仍高于A组荷瘤小鼠(17±4.58)(P0.001)。结论体内种植肿瘤会抑制机体NK细胞活性;输注体外扩增Treg细胞能够通过抑制NK细胞发挥抗肿瘤免疫抑制;过继输注体外扩增NK细胞能够部分逆转Treg细胞介导的抗肿瘤免疫抑制。     

小鼠乳腺癌模型中CD4~+CD25~(bright)CCR6~+Treg的检测及其意义

为检测CD4+CD25brightCCR6+Treg在小鼠乳腺癌实验动物模型中的分布,并探讨其意义。采用FACS检测正常小鼠和4T1荷瘤小鼠中CD4+CD25brightTreg的记忆分子CCR6的表达水平,同时检测CD4+CD25brightTreg的CCR6+和CCR6-两个亚群的Foxp3表达情况;用增殖抑制实验观察了两个亚群分别对CD4+CD25-T细胞增殖的抑制作用;用FACS检测CD4+CD25brightCCR6+Treg在正常小鼠和4T1荷瘤小鼠中PBMC、LN和TIL中的分布情况。结果:4T1荷瘤小鼠中CD4+CD25brightTreg的记忆分子CCR6的表达水平较正常小鼠增加;CD4+CD25brightTreg的CCR6+和CCR6-两个亚群均高表达Foxp3,均能在体外有效抑制CD4+CD25-T细胞的增殖;与正常对照相比,CD4+CD25brightCCR6+Treg在4T1荷瘤模型的引流淋巴结中比例明显增加,并在肿瘤局部存在显著的富集。上述结果提示在肿瘤免疫中存在CD4+CD25brightCCR6+Treg,其具有效应/记忆样表型,并在肿瘤局部有明显的富集,这可能是肿瘤长期免疫逃逸的重要机制。     

吲哚胺2,3-双加氧酶参与乳腺癌患者免疫耐受的研究

目的:研究吲哚胺2,3-双加氧酶(Indoleamine2,3-dioxygenase,IDO)在乳腺癌组织和引流淋巴结中的表达及调节性T细胞在相应组织内的分布,探讨IDO在乳腺癌免疫耐受中的作用机制.方法:收集26例乳腺癌患者的癌组织、癌旁正常乳腺、引流淋巴结和10例乳腺良性病变组织,用RT-PCR法检测IDO mRNA表达,用免疫组织化学法检测IDO和Foxp3蛋白表达.结果:乳腺癌引流淋巴结中IDO mRNA表达水平及IDO表达阳性指数[(19.59±7.65)%]高于原发乳腺癌组织[IDO表达阳性指数(13.16±7.82)%](P<0.05),乳腺癌组织中IDO mRNA表达水平及IDO表达阳性指数高于乳腺良性病变组织[IDO表达阳性指数(3.24±1.30)%]和癌旁正常乳腺组织[IDO阳性细胞指数(2.70±1.53)%](P均<0.05).乳腺癌组织中IDO表达水平与肿瘤临床分期和淋巴结转移相关(P<0.05).乳腺癌引流淋巴结中Foxp3阳性细胞指数[(6.13±2.31)%]高于乳腺原发癌[(3.50±1.04)%],乳腺癌组织中Foxp3阳性细胞指数高于乳腺良性病变[(0.71±0.42)%]和癌旁正常乳腺组织[(0.55±0.34)%](P均<0.05).乳腺癌和引流淋巴结中IDO的表达水平与Treg细胞的分布间均正性相关(r~2=0.449,r~2=0.454,P均<0.05).结论:IDO在乳腺癌细胞中表达增高,并伴随乳腺癌和引流淋巴结中Treg细胞比例升高,提示IDO表达增高有可能通过募集Treg细胞参与肿瘤和引流淋巴结内的免疫耐受.     

稳定表达hTERT/Luc的小鼠黑色毒瘤肺转移模型的建立

目的 建立稳定共表达荧光素酶基因和人端粒酶逆转录酶(hTERT)的小鼠黑色素瘤B16细胞系,并通过尾静脉注射的方式建立小鼠肿瘤肺转移模型.方法 利用DNA重组技术将hTERT基因和荧光素酶基因Luc定向插入到真核表达载体,构建真核表达质粒pIRES-neo-hTERT和pIRES-hyg3-Luc,利用阳离子脂质体LipofectamineTM 2000共转染小鼠黑色素瘤B16细胞,经G418及潮霉素B加压筛选出稳定转染的细胞株.应用Western blot法及免疫荧光法检测hTERT和Luc基因在B16细胞中的表达;将稳定共表达hTERT和Luc的B16-hTERT/Luc细胞株通过尾静脉注射的方式接种雄性C57BL/6小鼠建立肿瘤肺转移模型,并通过活体成像技术检测小鼠肺部肿瘤的生长.结果 建立了稳定共表达hTERT和Luc的小鼠黑色素瘤B16单克隆细胞株B16-hTERT/Luc,经检测hTERT基因和荧光素酶基因Luc在单克隆细胞株中的表达分别为84％和98％.通过尾静脉注射的方式成功建立了小鼠肿瘤肺转移模型,应用活体成像技术能方便地检测到B16-hTERT/Luc肿瘤在小鼠体内的生长情况.结论 成功建立了可用于活体成像技术检测的稳定表达hTERT的小鼠黑色素瘤肺转移模型.     

轴突导向蛋白4B(SEMA4B)通过增加肿瘤组织巨噬细胞和调节性T细胞促进肺癌细胞生长

目的探讨轴突导向蛋白4B(SEMA4B)能否调控肺癌细胞的生长。方法构建SEMA4B过表达病毒载体,并建立稳定过表达SEMA4B的Lewis肺癌(LLC)细胞株。采用实时定量PCR检测过表达的LLC细胞SEMA4B的表达水平。采用5-乙炔基-2′-脱氧尿苷(EdU)法检测SEMA4B对体外培养的LLC细胞增殖的影响。检测LLC细胞移植瘤小鼠模型中SEMA4B对LLC细胞生长的影响。采用流式细胞术检测SEMA4B对肿瘤免疫微环境中CD4~+CD25~+FOXP3~+调节性T细胞(Treg)的百分比。免疫组织化学染色法检测瘤组织CD31、增殖细胞核抗原(PCNA)、 CC趋化因子配体2(CCL2)及F4/80~+巨噬细胞的表达。结果成功建立了SEMA4B过表达细胞株, SEMA4B过表达促进LLC细胞增殖,过表达组的移植瘤瘤块体积明显大于对照组。过表达组瘤组织CD31表达水平升高、巨噬细胞和Treg增加、 CCL2升高。结论 SEMA4B通过增加肿瘤组织巨噬细胞、 Treg数量,促进肿瘤血管形成,从而促进肺癌细胞的增殖和肿瘤生长。     

红景天乙醇提取物调节Lewis肺癌荷瘤小鼠肿瘤浸润T细胞数量并增强抗肿瘤免疫效应

目的探讨藏药红景天(RRL)的抗肿瘤免疫功能。方法将Lewis肺癌荷瘤小鼠随机分为生理盐水组、 500 mg/kg RRL乙醇提取物处理组和10 mg/kg环磷酰胺(CTX)处理组,处理10 d。计算小鼠生存率和肿瘤生长抑制率;流式细胞术检测肿瘤浸润的CD4~+T、 CD8~+ T细胞数量及FOXP3~+调节性T细胞(Treg)占CD4~+CD25~+Treg的比例; ELISA检测荷瘤小鼠血清中白细胞介素2 (IL-2)和γ干扰素(IFN-γ)水平,乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)释放法检测脾细胞毒性T淋巴细胞(CTL)活性。结果 RRL乙醇提取物处理的Lewis荷瘤小鼠生存率显著提高,肿瘤生长受到抑制,肿瘤浸润的CD4~+T细胞和CD8~+T细胞数量增加, FOXP3~+ Treg占CD4~+CD25~+Treg的比例降低。荷瘤小鼠血清IFN-γ和IL-2水平提高,脾脏CTL的杀伤能力增强。结论 RRL乙醇提取物通过调节免疫细胞数量和功能增强抗肿瘤免疫效果。     

Renal dysplasia and asplenia in two sibs

A family is reported in which two sibs, one male and the other female, both died within 24 hours of birth with enlarged polycystic kidneys. Postmortem histology in the second child showed gross renal dysplasia. In both children the pancreas was enlarged, nodular and cystic but the liver appeared macroscopically normal. In the second child, histological examination confirmed pancreatic fibrosis with cystic dilation of ducts, but showed portal fibrosis with bile duct proliferation in the liver.
This combination of findings is very reminiscent of those in a girl and her brother reported by Ivemark et al. (1959). The children reported here also showed absence or hypoplasia of the spleen, cardiac anomalies and other features of the Ivemark syndrome (Ivemark 1955), a quite different, usually sporadic, congenital disorder. It is suggested that the children described here have a distinct lethal congenital disorder, probably inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

What will studies of Fulani individuals naturally exposed to malaria teach us about protective immunity to malaria?

There are an estimated over 200 million yearly cases of malaria worldwide. Despite concerted international effort to combat the disease, it still causes approximately half a million deaths every year, the majority of which are young children with Plasmodium falciparum infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Successes are largely attributed to malaria prevention strategies, such as insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor spraying, as well as improved access to existing treatments. One important hurdle to new approaches for the treatment and prevention of malaria is our limited understanding of the biology of Plasmodium infection and its complex interaction with the immune system of its human host. Therefore, the elimination of malaria in Africa not only relies on existing tools to reduce malaria burden, but also requires fundamental research to develop innovative approaches. Here, we summarize our discoveries from investigations of ethnic groups of West Africa who have different susceptibility to malaria.     

The universal muscular chain reaction,muscle spasm,Torsions, ruptures and extravasations. Chameleons of pathology and some manifestations of simple muscular disorders

Most bodily functions require the coordinated actions of complementary and supplementary paired muscle groups. Where this essential muscular cooperation is lacking, hollow organs may burst and others become literally screwed up, giving rise to many similar spastic diseases such as Torticollis, Twisted ovarian cyst, Torsion of the Testis, Volvulus of the intestines, Varicose Veins, Megacolon, Aortamegaly, Scoliosis, Erb's Palsy, Peyronie's Disease, Main-en-Griffe, Undescended Foot (Pes Cavus), Talipes, Strabismus. Spasm is “panenepidemic” and unclassified examples of Torsion Dystonia and Dyskinesia really are as common as debt and taxes.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

Hypo- und Hypermagnesämie aus kardiologischer Sicht

Zusammenfassung Eine Reihe pathologischer Zustände bedingen Magnesiummangel. Zustände mit Hypermagnesämie sind ebenfalls bekannt, doch wesentlich seltener. Für den Kardiologen beachtenswert ist, daß unter Therapie mit bestimmten Diuretica bei Herzinsuffizienz, bei Herzinfarkt, Kardiomyopathie, Digitalisintoxikation und bestimmten Herzrhythmusstörungen Hypomagnesämie beobachtet wurde. Leider kann in der klinischen Routine nur ein extracelluläres Magnesiumdefizit durch Serumbestimmungen gemessen werden; über Magnesiummangel einzelner Organe kann nichts ausgesagt werden. Hinweise für Magnesiummangel geben aber neben der Messung des Serumspiegels Anamnese, klinischer Befund, bestimmte EKG-Veränderungen wie auch evtl. Hypokalämie, ein Zustand, bei dem sich oft — besonders bei Aldosteronismus — parallele Veränderungen zeigten.Tierexperimente deuten darauf hin, daß infarktähnliche Läsionen unter Magnesiummangel entstehen, doch ob Herzinfarkt beim Menschen durch Magnesiummangel ausgelöst werden kann, ist noch ungeklärt. In Leichenherzen zeigte sich im Infarktgebiet neben Calciumakkumulation signifikanter Magnesiumverlust, wobei unklar blieb, ob sich Ursache oder Folge des Infarktes widerspiegelten. Falls ein ursächlicher Zusammenhang besteht, ist er im Myokardstoffwechsel selbst zu suchen, wie bei der Alkoholkardiomyopathie, wo myokardialer Magnesiummangel zumindest als pathogenetischer Teilfaktor anerkannt wird. Andererseits versucht man aber auch Beziehungen zwischen Atherosklerose, Blutgerinnung und Hypomagnesämie herzustellen, in der Meinung, daß Magnesiummangel auch über den coronaren Pathomechanismus des Herzinfarktes wirken könnte. Sicher scheint, daß gewisse EKG-Veränderungen und Herzrhythmusstörungen durch einen irritierten Magnesiumhaushalt bedingt sein können, da sie bei Gabe bzw. Entzug von Magnesium verschwinden. Daß Magnesiummangel die Glykosidtoleranz verringert, wird tierexperimentell bestätigt. Unter Hypomagnesämie bewirkt Acetylstrophanthidin eher und länger Rhythmusstörungen als ohne, außerdem lassen diese sich durch Magnesiumgaben eliminieren. Da in gewissen Fällen spontane und digitalisinduzierte Herzrythmusstörungen durch Magnesiuminjektionen beseitigt wurden, scheint Magnesium als Therapeuticum angebracht. Einsatz verschiedener Magnesiumsalze bei Angina pectoris, degenerativen Herzerkrankungen und Herzinsuffizienz ohne geprüften und offensichtlich gestörten Magnesiumhaushalt ist fragwürdig, weil keine eindeutigen klinischen Erfolgsbeweise vorliegen. Immerhin mag es aber larvierte, durch Serumbestimmungen nicht erfaßbare Mangelzustände geben. Allgemein erscheint es aus kardiologischer Sicht ratsam, den Magnesiumhaushalt zu überwachen und in entsprechenden Fällen auszugleichen, um möglichen Myokardläsionen oder fatalen Herzrhythmusstörungen entgegenzuwirken.     

Environmental risk factors and their role in the management of atopic dermatitis

Introduction: The etiology of atopic dermatitis (AD) is multifactorial with interaction between genetics, immune and environmental factors.

Areas covered: We review the role of prenatal exposures, irritants and pruritogens, pathogens, climate factors, including temperature, humidity, ultraviolet radiation, outdoor and indoor air pollutants, tobacco smoke exposure, water hardness, urban vs. rural living, diet, breastfeeding, probiotics and prebiotics on AD.

Expert commentary: The increased global prevalence of AD cannot be attributed to genetics alone, suggesting that evolving environmental exposures may trigger and/or flare disease in predisposed individuals. There is a complex interplay between different environmental factors, including individual use of personal care products and exposure to climate, pollution, food and other exogenous factors. Understanding these complex risk factors is crucial to developing targeted interventions to prevent the disease in millions. Moreover, patients require counseling on optimal regimens for minimization of exposure to irritants and pruritogens and other harmful exposures.     

'Very sore nights and days': the child's experience of illness in early modern England, c.1580-1720

Sick children were ubiquitous in early modern England, and yet they have received very little attention from historians. Taking the elusive perspective of the child, this article explores the physical, emotional, and spiritual experience of illness in England between approximately 1580 and 1720. What was it like being ill and suffering pain? How did the young respond emotionally to the anticipation of death? It is argued that children’s experiences were characterised by profound ambivalence: illness could be terrifying and distressing, but also a source of emotional and spiritual fulfilment and joy. This interpretation challenges the common assumption amongst medical historians that the experiences of early modern patients were utterly miserable. It also sheds light on children’s emotional feelings for their parents, a subject often overlooked in the historiography of childhood. The primary sources used in this article include diaries, autobiographies, letters, the biographies of pious children, printed possession cases, doctors’ casebooks, and theological treatises concerning the afterlife.     

Guidelines for the Validation and Use of Immunoassays for Determination of Introduced Proteins in Biotechnology Enhanced Crops and Derived Food Ingredients

Recent advancements in agricultural biotechnology have created a need for analytical techniques to determine introduced proteins in crops enhanced through modern biotechnology techniques. These proteins are expressed in plant tissues and may be present in food ingredients. Immunoassays are ideally suited for protein detection and may be used as both quantitative and threshold methods. Microplate ELISA and lateral flow devices are two of the most commonly used immunoassay formats for agricultural biotechnology applications. This paper provides general background information and a discussion of criteria for the validation and application of immunochemical methods to the analysis of proteins introduced into plants and food ingredients using biotechnology methods. It is the result of a collaborative effort of members of the Analytical Environmental Immunochemical Consortium. This collaborative effort represents the combined expertise of several organizations to reach consensus on establishing guidelines for the validation and use of immunoassays. Further, the paper offers developers and users a consistent approach to adopting the technology as well as aid in producing accurate and meaningful results.