Culture-negative infectious endocarditis caused by Bartonella spp.: 2 case reports and a review of the literature

Bartonella spp. are rare pathogens in humans and were recently recognized as important causative agents of culture-negative endocarditis. Here, we describe the 1st 2 documented cases of culture-negative endocarditis due to Bartonella henselae and Bartonella quintana encountered in a single hospital in Germany. Infection of the heart valve tissue was detected by broad-range polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and further confirmed by serologic testing. In particular, acute B. henselae infection with an impressive bacterial colonization of the infected cardiac valve was illustrated by transmission electron microscopy. B. henselae was further characterized by PCR assays targeting genotype-specific regions. Disease progression was initially monitored over the entire infection episode through inflammatory markers. In addition, a short overview of published detailed cases of Bartonella endocarditis in Europe within the last 7 years is given.     

In situ detection of Bartonella henselae cells

A new in situ hybridization technique was developed for identification of Bartonella henselae cells in cell suspension or in tissue sections. Use of highly specific probes labeled with either fluorescein or digoxigenin allows discrimination between B. henselae and closely related B. quintana cells. No cross-hybridization with other Bartonella or non-Bartonella species was observed. Besides its specificity it showed higher sensitivity as compared to PCR based detection methods. Moreover, its application allows direct observation of B. henselae in infected tissues.     

Production of recombinant Bartonella henselae 17-kDa protein for antibody-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

The Bartonella henselae 17-kDa protein was expressed in a prokaryotic expression system as a histidine-tagged fusion protein and was purified. The target gene was cloned into a recombinant expression construct, pTri-17kd. The expressed protein was purified to near homogeneity by a nickel-agarose column chromatography. Protein recovery was estimated to be 2.9 mg from 100 mL of bacterial culture. The purified 17-kDa protein was recognized by serum from patients infected with B. henselae and Bartonella quintana, suggesting antigenic integrity. The sensitivity and specificity of the IgG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) relative to immunofluorescent antibody assay testing were 71.1% and 93.0%, respectively. According to the receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, the area under the curve was 0.823. These results indicate that the expressed 17-kDa protein is a suitable source of antigen for development of an antibody-capture ELISA for the detection of antibodies to B. henselae.     

Discovery and analysis of Bartonella henselae antigens for use in clinical serologic assays

The antibody response to Bartonella henselae has been studied in a number of mammals; however, the human response needs to be further studied. After natural infection, humans have antibody reactivity to a large number of B. henselae proteins. We used a proteomic approach to identify antigenic proteins of B. henselae to determine their capacity to elicit a human antibody response. Comparing patient sera by Western blot analysis demonstrated significant amounts of reactivity to B. henselae. The immunofluorescence assay (IFA)-positive sera identified several protein spots of interest. However, a consistent reactivity to a single spot by all sera was not observed. Three of these spots demonstrated reactivity in 71%, 64%, and 64% of positive sera tested with negligible reactivity to the negative sera. These proteins were identified as GroES, BepA, and GroEL. Most IFA-positive sera demonstrated reactivity to GroES, GroEL, and BepA. The usefulness of these proteins for a clinical serologic assay is discussed.     

Bartonella henselae survives after the storage period of red blood cell units: is it transmissible by transfusion?

Bartonella henselae is the agent of cat scratch disease and bacillary angiomatosis. Blood donors can be asymptomatic carriers of B. henselae and the risk for transmission by transfusion should be considered. The objective of this study was to demonstrate that B. henselae remains viable in red blood cell (RBC) units at the end of the storage period. Two RBC units were split into two portions. One portion was inoculated with B. henselae and the other was used as a control. All units were stored at 4 degrees C for 35 days. Aliquots were collected on a weekly basis for culture in a dish with chocolate agar, ideal for the cultivation of this agent. Samples were collected on days 1 and 35 and taken for culture in Bact/Alert R blood culture bottles. Aliquots taken simultaneously were fixed in Karnovsky's medium for subsequent electron microscopy evaluation. Samples from infected bags successfully isolated B. henselae by chocolate agar culture, although Bact/Alert R blood culture bottles remained negative. Bartonella spp. structures within erythrocytes were confirmed by electron microscopy. The viability of B. henselae was demonstrated after a storage period of RBC units. These data reinforce the possibility of infection by transfusion of blood units collected from asymptomatic blood donors.     

巴尔通体MALDI-TOF MS数据库的建立与鉴定方法的评价

目的建立巴尔通体的基质辅助激光解吸电离飞行时间质谱(MALDI-TOF MS)数据库和质谱鉴定方法,利用野生菌株进行验证、评价。方法应用MALDI-TOF MS采集巴尔通体ATCC标准菌株和国内流行菌株的质谱数据,每株菌采集24张的质谱图集,获得特定的蛋白指纹图谱,汇总成不同种巴尔通体的标准质谱图,建立巴尔通体MALDI-TOF MS标准数据库。比较乙醇-甲酸提取法和直接涂抹法对质谱鉴定结果的影响,并进行重复性实验评估方法的稳定性。进一步应用173株野生巴尔通体菌株评估该标准数据库和相应的质谱鉴定方法。结果应用汉赛巴尔通体、五日热巴尔通体和杆菌样巴尔通体等21种/亚种巴尔通体,共计200株多地区来源的地理菌株,建立了巴尔通体MALDI-TOF MS蛋白指纹图谱标准数据库。2种样品制备方法均可以达到正确鉴定标准,提取法质谱得分略高于直接涂抹法。应用8种、16株巴尔通体菌株进行的重复性验证,得分为(9.078±0.031)~(9.776±0.006)分,变异系数(CV)为0.06%~1.12%。14种、173株巴尔通体测试菌株的质谱鉴定得分为9.014~9.796分,平均(9.462±0.195)分,在种水平上能被正确识别。结论基于该研究自主建立的巴尔通体质谱数据库,MALDI-TOF MS技术能够快速、准确鉴定巴尔通体种类,该课题组所建立的巴尔通体质谱标准数据库具有重要应用价值,对临床上巴尔通体病的实验室检验与诊断具有重要意义。     

汉赛巴尔通体的分子分型研究进展

汉赛巴尔通体是一种新发的人兽共患病病原,呈全球性分布。随着分子生物学技术的发展,多种分子分型方法应用于其流行病学调查,加深了研究者们对汉赛巴尔通体种内变异和系统发育关系的了解。本文就几种常见的分子分型方法在汉赛巴尔通体分子流行病学研究中的应用做一综述。     

An unusual outcome in a child with hepatosplenic cat-scratch disease

Typical cat-scratch disease (Bartonella henselae infection) in an immunocompetent child is usually associated with a history of scratch, bite or intimate contact with a cat. Most patients develop a non-tender papule in the scratch line after three to ten days. This may persist for only a few days or as long as two to three weeks. During the next two weeks or more, regional lymph nodes that drain the area gradually enlarge and then slowly resolve in more than 10% of patients. The nodes develop overlying erythema and may suppurate. Atypical forms of cat-scratch disease occur in a minority of cases and are characterized by ocular or neurological manifestations, hepatosplenic involvement, vertebral osteomyelitis, endocarditis etc. Immunocompromised individuals with B. henselae infection may develop bacillary angiomatosis, bacillary peliosis, and relapsing bacteremia. There have been several reports of hepatosplenic granulomas caused by B. henselae in immunocompetent children. We report a case of a 6-year-old boy with the hepatosplenic form of cat-scratch disease. Despite early diagnosis and long-term antimicrobial treatment, splenectomy could not be avoided.     

Unusual concurrent detection by polymerase chain reaction of Bartonella henselae and parvovirus b19 in an immunocompetent child with erythema nodosum and hepatic granulomatous disease

We report an unusual case of documented Bartonella henselae genotype I from hepatic tissue in an Italian immunocompetent girl presenting with erythema nodosum and hepatic granulomata. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed on biopsied liver sample to confirm the etiologic role of B. henselae and to identify the genetic variant of this organism. A PCR on the same liver biopsy for parvovirus B19 was also positive, but the clinical meaning of this was not clear.     

新疆古尔图地区长尾黄鼠感染病原体情况调查

目的调查新疆维吾尔自治区（新疆）古尔图地区长尾黄鼠汉赛巴尔通体、伯氏疏螺旋体和嗜吞噬细胞无形体等病原体感染情况,分析该地区自然疫源性疾病流行风险,为制定防控措施提供科学依据。方法2017年5 — 9月采用一日弓形夹法捕捉查岗果勒、布兰布拉克、白石头等地长尾黄鼠86只,无菌采集鼠体肾脏,试剂盒法提取全基因组DNA;运用实时荧光定量聚合酶链式反应方法检测样本汉赛巴尔通体ssrA基因、伯氏疏螺旋体recA基因和嗜吞噬细胞无形体Msp2基因。结果共检测86只长尾黄鼠样本,其中汉赛巴尔通体阳性42份,阳性率为48.84%;伯氏疏螺旋体阳性6份,阳性率为6.98%;嗜吞噬细胞无形体阳性3份,阳性率为3.49%。 布兰布拉克地区的汉赛巴尔通体感染率高于查岗果勒和白石头地区,白石头地区的伯氏疏螺旋体和嗜吞噬无形体感染率高于其他两地。结论新疆古尔图地区长尾黄鼠存在汉赛巴尔通体、伯氏疏螺旋体和嗜吞噬细胞无形体感染。     

Parotid mass due to cat scratch disease

Cat scratch disease (CSD), due to Bartonella henselae, is a self-limited chronic lymphadenopathy. A previously healthy 22-year-old woman presented with a palpable painful swelling in the right submandibular region accompanied by enlarged cervical lymph nodes. A diagnosis of B. henselae infection was made according to her personal history that divulged frequent contacts with cats and to a high titre of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgM antibodies for this agent. The patient improved within 1 month without the requirement of antibiotic treatment or surgery. The CSD should always be included in the differential diagnosis of all equivocal masses in the neck, especially in young individuals. In addition, it is important that a meticulous personal history is obtained.     

Cat-scratch Disease

Cat-scratch disease is a common infection that usually presents as tender lymphadenopathy. It should be included in the differential diagnosis of fever of unknown origin and any lymphadenopathy syndrome. Asymptomatic, bacteremic cats with Bartonella henselae in their saliva serve as vectors by biting and clawing the skin. Cat fleas are responsible for horizontal transmission of the disease from cat to cat, and on occasion, arthropod vectors (fleas or ticks) may transmit the disease to humans. Cat-scratch disease is commonly diagnosed in children, but adults can present with it as well. The causative microorganism, B. henselae, is difficult to culture. Diagnosis is most often arrived at by obtaining a history of exposure to cats and a serologic test with high titers (greater than 1:256) of immunoglobulin G antibody to B. henselae. Most cases of cat-scratch disease are self-limited and do not require antibiotic treatment. If an antibiotic is chosen, azithromycin has been shown in one small study to speed recovery. Infrequently, cat-scratch disease may present in a more disseminated form with hepatosplenomegaly or meningoencephalitis, or with bacillary angiomatosis in patients with AIDS.     

Molecular characterization of resistance to macrolides in Bartonella henselae

We selected in vitro erythromycin-resistant strains of Bartonella henselae. The mutants obtained had point mutations in domain V of 23S rRNA and/or in ribosomal protein L4. One lymph node of a patient with cat-scratch disease had such a mutation in 23S rRNA, suggesting that natural resistant strains may infect humans.     

Rapid identification of Bartonella henselae by real-time polymerase chain reaction in a patient with cat scratch disease

We report a localized submandibular lymph node infection in a patient with cat scratch disease. Directly performing real-time polymerase chain reaction assay on the biopsy sample, Bartonella henselae DNA was simultaneously detected and identified.     

血管内皮生长因子165转染骨髓间充质干细胞绿色荧光蛋白的表达

背景：血管内皮生长因子是一种有效的血管形成和通透性诱导因子,其中在体内以血管内皮生长因子165和血管内皮生长因子121表达为主,具有强烈的促血管新生作用。目的：观察以血管内皮生长因子165基因转染骨髓间充质干细胞,继而分化为血管内皮细胞的可行性。方法：分离提取50gSD大鼠骨髓间充质干细胞,采用流式细胞仪鉴定,将携有血管内皮生长因子165基因的质粒pGLV．EFla,采用慢病毒转染骨髓间充质干细胞,转染后于荧光显微镜下观察绿色荧光蛋白表达情况。结果与结论：转染后12h可见细胞内有绿色荧光蛋白表达,48h后表达增多,72h后达到高峰,其后部分细胞荧光开始减退。结果证明血管内皮生长因子165基因转染骨髓间充质干细胞后,骨髓间充质干细胞内有绿色荧光蛋白表达,提示细胞转染成功,骨髓间充质干细胞定向分化为血管内皮细胞具有可行性。     

Suppression of T and B lymphocyte activation by a Yersinia pseudotuberculosis virulence factor, yopH.

The acquired immune responses are crucial to the survival of Yersinia-infected animals. Mice lacking T cells are sensitive to Yersinia infection, and a humoral response to Yersinia can be protective. Diverse mechanisms for Yersinia to impair and evade the host innate immune defense have been suggested, but the effects of Yersinia on lymphocytes are not known. Here, we demonstrate that after a transient exposure to Y. pseudotuberculosis, T and B cells are impaired in their ability to be activated through their antigen receptors. T cells are inhibited in their ability to produce cytokines, and B cells are unable to upregulate surface expression of the costimulatory molecule, B7.2, in response to antigenic stimulation. The block of lymphocyte activation results from the inhibition of early phosphorylation events of the antigen receptor signaling complex. Through the use of Y. pseudotuberculosis mutants, we show that the inhibitory effect in both T cells and B cells is dependent on the production of Yersinia outermembrane protein (Yop) H, a tyrosine phosphatase. Our results suggest a mechanism by which the pathogenic bacteria may modulate a wide range of T and B cell-mediated immune responses.     

Laboratory diagnosis of Bartonella infections

Bartonella species are pathogens of emerging and reemerging significance, causing a wide array of clinical syndromes. In North America and Europe, they are increasingly recognized as a cause of culture negative endocarditis, neuroretinitis, and disease among homeless, HIV-infected, and other immunosuppressed individuals. In South America, bartonellosis continues to plague those in endemic regions and poses a significant threat to travelers in these areas. As the clinician is increasingly faced with these illnesses, which may be difficult to diagnose, laboratory techniques to confirm or refute the diagnosis are becoming increasingly important. Culture methods have improved over the past decade demonstrating increased sensitivity, but still require prolonged periods before isolation of the organism. Specimen handling, media selection, and growth conditions all may affect results and must be optimized in order to provide the highest likelihood of recovering the organism. Pure culture of the bacteria not only provides morphologic information, but also provides material for further diagnostic testing. Work with liquid media, which may provide a more rapid means of cultivation has shown some promise and should continue to be pursued. Improved blood culture techniques were a primary factor in the discovery of Bartonella endocarditis and continued improvements will likely demonstrate further clinical insights. Serologic testing for B henselae infections has become the cornerstone of clinical diagnosis, replacing the skin test that was poorly standardized and posed a potential risk to the patient. Immunofluorescence assays have been well characterized and validated in clinical trials, however they are not universally available. Vero cell cocultivated antigens appear to provide higher sensitivity and specificity when compared with agar-derived antigens. IFA assays are inherently difficult to perform, requiring significant expertise to provide reproducible results. On the contrary, enzyme immunoassays offer ease of use and a high level of reproducibility, however ideal antigens for use in the diagnosis of Bartonella infections have not been clearly identified. Continued work to define antigenic targets of the human response to infection and incorporation of these into a widely available EIA will provide a cost-effective tool for the clinician and epidemiologist alike. Due to the close phylogenetic relationship of B henselae and B quintana, differentiation between these species by serologic means may prove difficult. Molecular techniques including PCR offer high sensitivity and specificity, rapid availability of information, and the ability to differentiate Bartonella organisms at the highest level. Results of studies to date are promising and as methods are refined it will be important to conduct clinical studies to define the role of these assays. In disseminated Bartonella infections such as bacillary angiomatosis, peliosis, endocarditis, and urban trench fever, PCR currently offers the ability to establish the diagnosis when other tests may be unrevealing. For CSD, this technique should be used as a confirmatory technique when the diagnosis is unclear by other means. PCR analysis of blood specimens offers a minimally invasive approach to diagnosis, but clinical data are scarce and further studies are needed. As DNA microarrays move into the clinical arena, specific hybridization probes may allow improved identification and differentiation of Bartonellae at the molecular level.     

In vitro susceptibilities of Rickettsia and Bartonella spp. to 14-hydroxy-clarithromycin as determined by immunofluorescent antibody analysis of infected vero cell monolayers

The in vitro susceptibilities of Rickettsia akari, Rickettsia conorii, Rickettsia prowazekii, Rickettsia rickettsii, Bartonella elizabethae, Bartonella henselae and Bartonella quintana to different concentrations of clarithromycin, 14-hydroxy-clarithromycin (the primary metabolite of clarithromycin) and tetracycline in Vero cell cultures, were determined by enumeration of immunofluorescently-stained bacilli. The extent of antibiotic-induced inhibition of foci was recorded for each dilution of antibiotic and compared with an antibiotic-negative control. Based upon MIC data, clarithromycin alone is highly active against all three Bartonella spp., R. akari and R. prowazekii, while 14-hydroxy-clarithromycin is active against R. conorii, R. prowazekii and R. rickettsii. Further testing is warranted in animal models and human clinical trials, to examine the activity of both clarithromycin and its primary metabolite and to define further the role of clarithromycin in therapy, particularly of infections caused by obligate intracellular bacteria such as Rickettsia and Bartonella spp.