Extracorporeal life support in paediatrics.

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is a life support technique based on modifications of heart-lung bypass technology. It is used to support severe but potentially reversible pulmonary or cardiopulmonary failure. There is increasing use of the technique for neonates and a return of interest in its use for adults. The number of non-neonatal paediatric patients receiving pulmonary support with ECMO worldwide is, however, small, and survival rates average less than 50%. Initial experience in 15 patients aged 3 months to 5 years with a high survival and low morbidity is reported.     

体外膜肺氧合技术在新生儿呼吸衰竭中的应用

体外膜肺氧合（extracorporeal membran eoxygenation,ECMO）技术是一种能在较长时间内对心肺功能进行支持的体外生命支持技术。随着一氧化氮吸入、肺表面活性物质及高频通气等治疗手段的出现,需要ECMO支持的呼吸衰竭新生儿越来越少。但临床上仍有部分难治性呼吸衰竭新生儿对以上治疗无效或反应不良,仍需要ECMO支持。本文对国外ECMO技术在新生儿呼吸衰竭的应用情况进行介绍,并与国内的情况进行对比分析,希望有助于下一步我国新生儿ECMO技术的开展。     

Neonatal ECMO: Current controversies and trends

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), a technique for providing life support to patients with cardiac and/or respiratory dysfunction, allows the heart and lungs to "rest." The neonatal respiratory population has been a major benefactor of ECMO since 1982. Its use for neonatal respiratory disease increased dramatically until the past few years, when the number of neonatal respiratory ECMO cases began a downward trend. Fewer patients with persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn (PPHN), meconium aspiration syndrome, respiratory distress syndrome, or sepsis are requiring ECMO support as frequently as in the past. Many attribute this decline to the newer respiratory therapies-mainly, surfactant, high-frequency oscillatory ventilation, and inhaled nitric oxide. Neonates who continue to require ECMO today are sicker than the historic norm and have more complicated and lengthy ECMO runs. Patients with congenital diaphragmatic hernia, PPHN, and sepsis remain the most consistent in their representation among ECMO recipients within this author's institution, suggesting that the newer respiratory therapies have not had the same impact on these patients' needs for ECMO support. Better guidelines for determining which patients would benefit from earlier inititation of ECMO are needed.     

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??Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation??ECMO?? is a kind of extra life support technique that can support cardiac and pulmonary function of critical neonates for a relatively long time. The principle and application of ECMO in foreign medical institutes and domestic medical institutes were summarized in order to improve the clinical application of ECMO in critically ill newborns to further improve the rescue success rate and reduce the neonatal mortality.     

体外膜肺氧合技术在新生儿危重症救治中的应用

体外膜肺氧合（extracorporeal membrane oxygenation,ECMO）是一种体外生命支持技术,能够对新生儿危重症进行较长时间的心肺功能支持。了解国内外ECMO技术的原理以及在新生儿临床应用,推广ECMO技术在新生儿临床的应用,可提高危重新生儿抢救成功率,进一步降低新生儿病死率。     

Pediatric ECMO for pulmonary support: experience from 12 cases

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), which can be described as treatment with a modified heart–lung machine over a prolonged period of time, is used to support patients with life–threatening but potentially reversible lung failure. ECMO by itself does not cure the patient but gives the lungs a chance to rest while awaiting spontaneous or therapeutic healing. The method is well documented in the neonatal age group. In the non–neonatal age group, however, experience is less extensive. This report of the initial result from our hospital with 12 non–neonatal pediatric cases shows high survival and low morbidity. Nine of the 12 patients were able to be weaned from ECMO (75% survival) and 8 of these 9 patients were long–term survivors. Medium time on the ventilator after discontinuation of ECMO was 4 days. At follow–up, all long–term survivors had no signs of neurological or pulmonary sequelae. These encouraging results point to the fact that ECMO should be considered more often in cases of life–threatening but potentially reversible pulmonary failure     

Evolution of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) in neonatal acute respiratory failure, fifteen years of experience]

Over the last decade, several new therapies including exogenous surfactant therapy, inhaled nitric oxide and high-frequency ventilation have become available for the treatment of neonatal pulmonary failure. The aim of this retrospective study was to evaluate to what extent these modalities have impacted the use of neonatal extracorporeal membrane oxygenation at our institution and to discuss the role of ECMO in 2003 in the management of newborn infants with refractory hypoxemia. POPULATION AND METHODS: Two hundred and twenty six newborn infants treated by ECMO before 15 days of life and during more than 24 h in our intensive care unit were retrospectively included from two time periods (group 1: 1988-1993 and group 2: 1996-2003). RESULTS: As compared with the first group, the number of newborns supported by ECMO in the second group has clearly diminished and their severity has increased. Overall survival rate was 80% in the first group and 69% in the second group. Meconium aspiration syndrome remains the major indication for ECMO (44%). Pulmonary sequelae, assessed by bronchopulmonary dysplasia rate (41%) are more frequent that neurologic sequelae (4.8%). CONCLUSION: ECMO remains an useful technique in the management of newborn infants with refractory hypoxemia, with a consideration to institute ECMO early in order to increase survival rate.     

An update on ECMO

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is essentially a heart-lung bypass machine that can be used to support certain critically ill neonates. ECMO therapy reached a peak in usage in the mid to late 1980s. At that time, ECMO was most often used for severe complications of persistent pulmonary hypertension, meconium aspiration, congenital diaphragmatic hernia, and sepsis. Since that time, the use of ECMO has decreased, due largely to newer medical advances that have improved the course of these neonates. Whether a nurse works in a Level III ECMO center or a Level I, II, or III NICU, ECMO treatment has become less familiar than it once was. But even though ECMO is used less often, there are times when nothing can take its place. It is important to stay informed so that families of those critically ill newborns who do need ECMO can be educated and supported. This article defines ECMO, discusses when it should be incorporated into the plan of care, describes advances in the NICU that have resulted in the dramatic reduction in the use of ECMO, and provides information and communication strategies to better support the family of a very sick newborn.     

体外膜肺氧合在儿童暴发型心肌炎应用的多中心调查

目的 探讨中国大陆PICU应用体外膜肺氧合(extracorporeal membrane oxygenation,ECMO)支持儿童暴发型心肌炎治疗的效果.方法 采用问卷调查方法回顾自2006年4月中国大陆PICU首次开展ECMO 治疗以来,国内三级儿童专科医院或综合医院的PICU应用ECMO支持暴发型心肌炎的治疗情况;总结分析临床特点及预后.结果 共有3家医院的23例儿童急性暴发型心肌炎患者接受ECMO治疗,男18例,女5例;平均年龄(86.3±48.8)个月,平均体重(25.8±12.1)kg,ECMO治疗前左室射血分数(39.5±15.6)%,ECMO平均治疗时间(119.1±57.3)h.18例患儿存活出院,5例死亡.所有患儿经ECMO治疗24h后平均动脉压均有上升,从ECMO前的(60.7±23.7)mmHg(1mmHg=0.133kPa)升至(72.1±9.8)mmHg,并且存活者上升水平显著高于死亡者(P=0.04);血清乳酸水平从ECMO前的(6.8±5.1) mmol/L降至(2.9±2.6)mmol/L,存活者血清乳酸水平降低幅度显著大于死亡者(P<0.001).23例患儿中,成功撤离ECMO 21例,成功撤离率为91.3%;3例患儿撤离ECMO后30d内死亡;18例好转出院,整体存活率为78.3%.死亡患儿ECMO支持时间长于存活患者,但两者比较差异无统计学意义(P=0.41).所有患儿平均医疗花费(16.4±4.9)万元,存活者与死亡者比较差异无统计学意义(P=0.24).18例存活患儿中,共有15例随访,发生神经系统后遗症2例,1例颈总动脉血栓形成,1例心功能不全.结论 ECMO可为儿童急性暴发型心肌炎患者提供有效的循环支持,促进血流动力学稳定,提高存活率.     

Applications of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation to pediatric cardiac surgery

The stability of the membrane oxygenator has led to its applicaton as a means of long-term cardiopulmonary support. The use of technology is neonates has led the process achieved in adylt respiratory support. In the infant and neonate with congenital heart disease, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) has been used for both cardiac, and pulmonary support, and in situations of unrecoverable cardiac failure as a bridge to transplantion. Significant progres has bee made, and valuable lessons have been learned. Indications, techniques, and results of the application of ECMO to children with congenital heart disease are summarized here.     

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) for pulmonary parenchymal disease in older children

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) for the support of children outside the newborn period who have pulmonary failure is only recently becoming accepted. It is again being applied, after earlier failures, because well-trained teams and improved equipment and techniques are available following the success of neonatal ECMO. In addition, in Europe extracorporeal CO₂ removal (ECCO₂R) in adults has been more successful. The use of ECMO for pulmonary failure in children does not have fixed indications and has had considerably less success than neonatal ECMO. Patients who require inspired oxygen fractions of over 0.5 and positive end-expiratory pressures of over 6 cm H₂O for more than 12 h after being treated for more than 48 h should be considered candidates, given the high mortality of children with ARDS (70%). Survival averages 50% to 60%. Circuits and patient management techniques are very similar to those for newborn ECMO, but patients usually require longer times on ECMO. There are many more options for cannulation for both venoarterial and venovenous techniques than in neonatal and cardiac ECMO. The improving results indicate that ECMO will play a part in treating children with pulmonary failure. Further studies will be required to determine which patients can benefit from ECMO as well as the exact application in each case. Correspondence to: M. Klein     

Respiratory failure and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation

Conventional treatment of respiratory failure involves positive pressure ventilation with high concentrations of inspired oxygen. If adequate gas exchange still cannot be achieved extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) may be an option. The general indication for ECMO for respiratory insufficiency is a reversible pulmonary disease, which cannot be managed by conventional means. ECMO is a modified heart-lung machine. Blood is withdrawn from a central vein in the patient and pumped through an artificial oxygenator back to the patient, either to a central artery (veno-arterial ECMO) or to a central vein (veno-venous ECMO). Total gas exchange can be achieved through the extracorporeal system, and the lungs do not have to be subjected to high-pressure ventilation. To date over 21,500 neonates have been treated with ECMO with an overall survival to hospital discharge of 76%. Meconium aspiration syndrome carries the highest survival (94%), whereas congenital diaphragmatic hernia on ECMO only has a survival of 52%. A total of 3500 pediatric patients (30 days to 18 years) have been treated with ECMO with a survival of 56%. Aspiration and viral pneumonia are the pediatric diagnoses with the highest survival rates. Randomized controlled studies have shown a significant advantage of ECMO with regard to survival in neonates. In the pediatric age group, nonrandomized studies have shown lower mortality in ECMO-treated patients.     

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and conventional medical therapy in neonates with persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn: a prospective randomized study

Thirty-nine newborn infants with severe persistent pulmonary hypertension and respiratory failure who met criteria for 85% likelihood of dying were enrolled in a randomized trial in which extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) therapy was compared with conventional medical therapy (CMT). In phase I, 4 of 10 babies in the CMT group died and 9 of 9 babies in the ECMO group survived. Randomization was halted after the fourth CMT death, as planned before initiating the study, and the next 20 babies were treated with ECMO (phase II). Of the 20, 19 survived. All three treatment groups (CMT and ECMO in phase I and ECMO, phase II) were comparable in severity of illness and mechanical ventilator support. The overall survival of ECMO-treated infants was 97% (28 of 29) compared with 60% (6 of 10) in the CMT group (P less than .05).     

ECMO in CDH: Is there a role?

Despite wide use and decades of experience, survival of congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) patients treated with extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), as reported by the extra-corporeal life support organization (ELSO), remains unchanged at 50%. High-survival rates both with and without utilizing ECMO have been reported, fueling questions about the utility of ECMO support in this difficult population. This review looks at data from the Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia Study Group and individual center reports, to evaluate the role of ECMO in CDH, focusing on defining the patients most likely to benefit, and discussing how those benefits can best be achieved. These data show that ECMO improves survival in those CDH patients who are most severely affected, but potential complications of ECMO delivery outweigh benefit in patients with less severely affected. Improved results can be expected by minimizing ECMO complications, and by improving rates of CDH repair in patients that require ECMO.     

Neonatal extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: practice patterns and predictors of outcome in the UK

OBJECTIVE: To review the UK neonatal extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) service and identify predictors of outcome. DESIGN: Retrospective review of the national cohort. Patients and interventions: 718 neonates received ECMO for respiratory failure between 1993 and 2005. Measurements and results: Diagnoses were: 48.0% meconium aspiration syndrome (97.1% survivors), 15.9% congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH; 57.9% survivors), 15.9% sepsis (62.3% survivors), 9.5% persistent pulmonary hypertension (79.4% survivors), 5.6% respiratory distress syndrome (92.5% survivors) and 5.1% congenital lung abnormalities (24.3% survivors). The overall survival rate of 79.7% compared favourably with the worldwide Extracorporeal Life Support Organization (ELSO) Registry. Over the period of review, pre-ECMO use of advanced respiratory therapies increased (p<0.001), but ECMO initiation was not delayed (p = 0.61). The use of veno-venous (VV) ECMO increased (p<0.001) and average run time fell (p = 0.004). Patients treated with VV ECMO had a survival rate of 87.7% compared with 73.4% in the veno-arterial (VA) ECMO group; only 42.4% of those needing conversion from VV to VA ECMO survived. In non-CDH neonates, lower birth weight, lower gestational age, older age at ECMO and higher oxygenation index (OI) were associated with increased risk of death. In CDH neonates, lower birth weight and younger age at ECMO were identified as risk factors for death. CONCLUSION: The UK neonatal ECMO service achieves good outcomes and with overall survival rate reaching 80% compares favourably with international results. Advanced respiratory therapies are used widely in UK ECMO patients. Identification of higher OI and older age at ECMO as risk factors in non-CDH neonates reinforces the importance of timely referral for ECMO.     

Predicting outcome in ex-premature infants supported with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for acute hypoxic respiratory failure

OBJECTIVE: To identify predictors of outcome in ex-premature infants supported with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) for acute hypoxic respiratory failure. METHODS: Retrospective review of ex-premature infants with acquired acute hypoxic respiratory failure requiring ECMO support in the United Kingdom from 1992 to 2001. Review of follow up questionnaires completed by general practitioners and local paediatricians. RESULTS: Sixty four ex-premature infants (5-10 each year) received ECMO support, despite increased use of advanced conventional treatments over the decade. The most common infective agent was respiratory syncytial virus (85% of cases). Median birth gestation was 29 weeks and median corrected age at the time of ECMO support was 42 weeks. Median ECMO support duration was relatively long, at 229 hours. Survival to hospital discharge and to 6 months was 80%, remaining similar throughout the period of review. At follow up, 60% had long term neurodisability and 79% had chronic pulmonary problems. Of pre-ECMO factors, baseline oxygen dependence, younger age, and inpatient status were associated with non-survival (p < or = 0.05). Of ECMO related factors, patient complications were independently associated with adverse neurodevelopmental outcome and death (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Survival rates for ex-premature infants after ECMO support are favourable, but patients suffer a high burden of morbidity during intensive care and over the long term. At the time of ECMO referral, baseline oxygen dependence is the most important predictor of death, but no combination of the factors considered was associated with a mortality that would preclude ECMO support.     

体外膜肺氧合技术在持续肺动脉高压新生儿救治中的临床应用北大核心CSCD

目的探讨体外膜肺氧合技术(extracorporeal membrane oxygenation,ECMO)在新生儿持续肺动脉高压(persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn,PPHN)救治中的临床应用价值。方法回顾性收集2015年1月至2021年12月在中山市人民医院新生儿重症监护室中应用ECMO支持的11例PPHN新生儿的临床资料,包括患儿的一般资料、临床诊断、实验室检查、ECMO支持时间及过程中各种并发症、住院时间、结局等,进行比较分析。结果11例患儿中有10例撤机成功,撤机成功率91%;存活8例,存活率73%。11例患儿ECMO治疗时间26~185 h,平均治疗时间(81±50)h;呼吸机治疗时间57~392 h,平均治疗时间(198±105)h;住院时间2~49 d,平均住院时间(22±15)d。11例患儿ECMO治疗24 h后氧合指数、血乳酸水平较ECMO治疗前均显著改善(P<0.05);其中10例患儿ECMO治疗24 h后肺动脉压力较ECMO治疗前均显著下降(P<0.05);1例患儿在EMCO治疗期间肺动脉压力呈进行性升高,最终死亡,结合尸检肺组织病理及全外显子测序结果,确诊为肺泡毛细血管发育不良。11例患儿ECMO治疗期间发生颅内出血5例,弥散性血管内凝血1例,胃出血1例,肺出血2例,肾功能不全1例,穿刺处出血3例。结论ECMO技术是一种有效应用于常规治疗无效的PPHN新生儿救治的心肺支持措施。应用ECMO技术的并发症发生率高,需严格掌握适应证、把握时机、提高ECMO管理水平,才能提高患儿的撤机率及存活率。     

Management of congenital diaphragmatic hernia with transposition of the great arteries

Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is a relatively rare malformation, but it has a high mortality rate. Its association with congenital heart disease lowers survival rate due to severe acidosis and desaturation caused by persistent pulmonary hypertension of the neonate. We describe herein a case of CDH with transposition of the great arteries and intact ventricular septum, in a patient who was prenatally diagnosed, managed with extracorporeal oxygenation (ECMO) support and successfully treated with both CDH repair and Jatene procedure, with no respiratory or circulatory sequelae. In conclusion, precise prenatal estimation is essential, and ECMO is a useful therapeutic option in these complex cases.     

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation selection criteria: partial pressure of arterial oxygen versus alveolar-arterial oxygen gradient

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) has dramatically increased the survival rate of hypoxemic neonates who are unresponsive to maximum conventional medical therapy. Because ECMO involves multiple risks, including ligation of the right common carotid artery and right internal jugular vein, ECMO candidates should be neurologically intact neonates with a high probability of death despite maximum conventional ventilatory support. Currently, criteria based on the calculated alveolar-arterial oxygen gradient (A-aDO2) have replaced the neonatal pulmonary insufficiency index for predicting mortality and, thus, ECMO eligibility. A retrospective review of death prediction for the 26 months prior to the initiation of an ECMO program revealed a sensitivity of 67% and a specificity of 96% using the criterion of a PaO2 of less than 50 mm Hg for four hours. An equivalent A-aDO2 criterion of greater than or equal to 630 for four hours produced a sensitivity of 61% and a specificity of 96%. Prediction of mortality in neonates with sepsis was poor regardless of the criteria used. Excluding the deaths due to sepsis increased the sensitivity to 86% and 79% using criteria based on PaO2 and A-aDO2, respectively. It is concluded that the use of criteria based on PaO2 is equivalent to criteria based on A-aDO2 for predicting mortality. Criteria based on PaO2 may, however, decrease both the false-negative rate (patients with an elevated PCO2) and the false-positive rate (patients with intentionally induced hypocarbia secondary to hyperventilation alkalosis).     

儿科体外膜肺氧合期间院内感染防控

体外膜肺氧合（ECMO）是一种应用于呼吸衰竭和循环衰竭重症患儿的有创的、挽救性的生命支持技术。ECMO期间院内感染是ECMO的严重并发症之一,其发生率为16.6%~22.1%,研究发现ECMO支持时间是院内感染的独立危险因素,院内感染对ECMO患者预后和病死率的影响尚不确定。凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌、念珠菌、肠杆菌是ECMO期间院内感染的常见致病菌,预防性使用抗菌药物是常见做法。ECMO期间抗菌药物的药代动力学发生变化,要根据药物浓度测定结果调整其剂量。