Update on ENT anaesthesia in children

This article is an update of anaesthesia for common paediatric ear, nose and throat (ENT) procedures. ENT pathology is the most common indication for surgery in children. An increasing proportion are performed as day cases, even in the presence of comorbidities such as obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA), so judicious selection of suitable children remains important. Considerations include severity of disease, known difficult airway, complex comorbidities, and the surgical centre. The anaesthetic management of frequently performed paediatric ENT procedures will be discussed, including recent advances in ENT surgery that have an impact on the anaesthetist.     

Palatal eversion for the treatment of combined nasopharyngeal stenosis and tonsillar pillars adhesion

ObjectiveRarely the tonsillar pillars and the soft palate became adherent to the posterior nasopharyngeal wall by strong fibrous tissue due to excessive dissection and cauterization during surgery leading to nasopharyngeal stenosis. Therefore, many treatment modalities are being tried to cure this problem. The aim of this study is to explore our results of modifying the basic technique to accommodate those patients with combined nasopharyngeal stenosis and tonsillar pillars adhesions in one stage. Study Design: Case series.MethodsThis study was conducted on 10 patients with combined nasopharyngeal stenosis and tonsillar pillars adhesions after adenotonsillectomy. They were subjected to treatment by palatal eversion through dividing the soft palate in the midline to separate each pillar from the pharyngeal wall in continuation with each half of soft palate and removal of the fibrous tissue causing stenosis. This was followed by eversion and fixation of the two palatal divisions on either side to allow complete epithelialization of the stenotic area. Postoperative follow-up was done for one year by the flexible nasopharyngoscopy, perceptual speech analysis, and polysomnography.ResultsThe flexible nasopharyngosopic examination of the 10 patients at the end of post-operative period revealed a freely mobile soft palate with no nasopharyngeal stenosis or palatal fistula. Velopharyngeal function and speech assessment by perceptual speech analysis was normal in all 10 cases. No obstructive episodes were recorded in polysomnograms.ConclusionsPalatal eversion is a promising technique in the treatment of post-adenotonsillectomy of combined nasopharyngeal stenosis and tonsillar pillars adhesion. It is recommended to be used on a wider scale of patients and other indications as nasopharyngeal stenosis following uvulopalatoplasty and post nasopharyngeal radiotherapy. The level of evidence: 4 (case series).     

Complicaciones postoperatorias tras adenoamigdalectomía en niños con síndrome de apnea-hipopnea del sueño severo. ¿Requieren ingreso en unidad de cuidados intensivos?

Introduction and objectivesIn recent years, with the rise of sleep-disordered breathing, we have been seeing more articles related to post-operative complications after adenotonsillectomy in children with sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome (OSAS), especially in those with severe sleep apnea. The objective of this study was to evaluate post-operative complications in children with severe OSAS compared to children who had adenotonsillectomy for a different reason, and establish whether they needed admission to an intensive care unit or not.MethodsAll children undergoing adenotonsillectomy in our hospital in the last 5 years were initially included in this study. Complications were analysed with a retrospective review.ResultsTwo hundred and twenty nine children admitted for adenotonsillectomy were finally included. In the whole group, complications occurred in 3.5% of children, 2.2% corresponding to respiratory complications. Children with sleep apnea (3.23% vs 1.47%, P = .39) or severe sleep apnea (3.77% vs 1.70%, P = .32) presented a higher incidence of respiratory complications, which was not statistically significant and was far below those published by other authors. All respiratory complications took place in the immediate post-operative period (operating theatre or anaesthesia recovery), with none in the paediatric ward.ConclusionsIn our population, children who undergo adenotonsillectomy, without any other comorbidities, malformation syndrome or neuromuscular disease, are more than 2 years old and have an immediate postoperative period without incidence, do not need to be systematically admitted to an intensive care unit, even if they present with severe OSAS.     

Weight gain in children after adenotonsillectomy: undesirable weight gain or catch-up growth?

Objective/backgroundObesity and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) are consequential conditions with significant overlap in the pediatric population. Early studies documented catch-up growth in underweight children after adenotonsillectomy, but more recent studies suggested that normal and even overweight children may experience excess weight gain after adenotonsillectomy. We performed a secondary analysis of Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial (CHAT) data to test whether there was an effect of early adenotonsillectomy on undesirable weight gain, defined as an increase in body mass index (BMI) Z score in an already overweight or obese child or a change from baseline normal or underweight to a follow up BMI Z score classified as overweight.Patients/methodsWe included 398 children with moderate OSA and complete anthropomorphic data randomized to adenotonsillectomy versus watchful waiting with supportive care. Pearson's χ² and independent t tests were used to compare demographic, activity, sleep and anthropomorphic characteristics between children who did and did not experience undesirable weight gain over seven months. Logistic regression was used to test for an association between adenotonsillectomy and undesirable weight gain, both unadjusted and adjusted for age, sex, Black race, average parent-reported weekly activity level, mother's body mass index, average nightly sleep duration and either baseline or follow up AHI (in separate models).ResultsForty three percent (n = 172) experienced undesirable weight gain. A similar percentage of children in both arms experienced undesirable weight gain (45% adenotonsillectomy vs 41% watchful waiting). Neither unadjusted nor adjusted regression analysis demonstrated a significant effect of adenotonsillectomy on undesirable weight gain.ConclusionAdenotonsillectomy may not be an independent risk factor for undesirable weight gain in children.     

Effect of adenotonsillectomy on middle ear status in children

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of adenotonsillectomy as compared with watchful waiting on the middle ear status of children. STUDY DESIGN: Randomized controlled trial. METHODS: We recruited 300 children between 2 and 8 years of age who were selected for adenotonsillectomy according to current medical practice. Excluded from the trial were children with very frequent throat infections (more than 6 per year) or obstructive sleep apnea. Participants were randomly assigned to either adenotonsillectomy or watchful waiting. Main outcome measure was the percentage of children with unilateral or bilateral otitis media diagnosed at the scheduled follow-up visits according to an algorithm combining tympanometry and otoscopy. RESULTS: The percentages of children in the adenotonsillectomy and watchful waiting group diagnosed with otitis media at baseline and at 3, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months were 27.7 versus 30.5, 16.8 versus 25.2, 18.3 versus 21.2, 12.3 versus 15.2, 17.6 versus 15.5, and 14.7 versus 10.3%, respectively (P < .10). In the subgroup of children selected for adenotonsillectomy predominantly because of recurrent or persistent otitis media, hearing loss, or recurrent upper respiratory tract infections (n = 111) and in the subgroup of children diagnosed with otitis media at inclusion (n = 82), the occurrence of otitis media did not differ significantly between the adenotonsillectomy and watchful waiting group during the entire follow-up period. CONCLUSION: We conclude that in a large proportion of children selected for adenotonsillectomy according to current medical practice, including those with otitis media or related complaints, no beneficial effect of adenotonsillectomy on middle ear status is to be expected.     

腺样体、扁桃体切除术对睡眠呼吸障碍儿童行为异常的治疗意义

要：目的探讨腺样体、扁桃体切除术对睡眠呼吸障碍儿童行为异常的治疗作用。方法采用32导多导睡眠仪及Polysmith睡眠分析软件对65例睡眠打鼾儿童进行整夜睡眠监测,根据诊断标准将其分为阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征（OSAHS）组、单纯打鼾组和健康对照组。应用Conners简明症状问卷评定儿童行为问题,比较36例OSAHS组与29例单纯打鼾组行手术治疗前后异常行为的改善情况。结果OSAHS组及单纯打鼾组存在行为问题的比率高于健康对照组,但差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）。行腺样体、扁桃体手术前后Conners行为简明症状问卷得分OSAHS组由14.2±3.8下降到6.7±3.1(P＜0.05);单纯打鼾组由9.4±4.1下降到5.1±2.8(P＜0.05);OSAHS组存在行为异常者术前19例（52.3%）术后6例（16.7%）,χ2=4.347?8,P＜0.05;单纯打鼾组存在行为异常者术前14例（48.3%）术后4例（13.8%）,χ2=5.263?2,P＜0.05。结论OSAHS及单纯打鼾组儿童有较多的行为问题出现。腺样体、扁桃体切除术对睡眠呼吸障碍儿童行为异常有明显的治疗作用。     

Alternatives to surgery in children with mild OSA

Precision medicine requires coordinated and integrated evidence-based combinatorial approaches so that diagnosis and treatment can be tailored to the individual patient. In this context, the treatment approach to mild obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is fraught with substantial debate as to what is mild OSA, and as to what constitutes appropriate treatment. As such, it is necessary to first establish a proposed consensus of what criteria need to be employed to reach the diagnosis of mild OSA, and then examine the circumstances under which treatment is indicated, and if so, whether and when anti-inflammatory therapy (AIT), rapid maxillary expansion (RME), and/or myofunctional therapy (MFT) may be indicated.