The pentose phosphate pathway and pyruvate carboxylation after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury

The neonatal brain is vulnerable to oxidative stress, and the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) may be of particular importance to limit the injury. Furthermore, in the neonatal brain, neurons depend on de novo synthesis of neurotransmitters via pyruvate carboxylase (PC) in astrocytes to increase neurotransmitter pools. In the adult brain, PPP activity increases in response to various injuries while pyruvate carboxylation is reduced after ischemia. However, little is known about the response of these pathways after neonatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI). To this end, 7-day-old rats were subjected to unilateral carotid artery ligation followed by hypoxia. Animals were injected with [1,2-¹³C]glucose during the recovery phase and extracts of cerebral hemispheres ipsi- and contralateral to the operation were analyzed using ¹H- and ¹³C-NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). After HI, glucose levels were increased and there was evidence of mitochondrial hypometabolism in both hemispheres. Moreover, metabolism via PPP was reduced bilaterally. Ipsilateral glucose metabolism via PC was reduced, but PC activity was relatively preserved compared with glucose metabolism via pyruvate dehydrogenase. The observed reduction in PPP activity after HI may contribute to the increased susceptibility of the neonatal brain to oxidative stress.     

Inhibition of microRNA-181 reduces forebrain ischemia-induced neuronal loss

MicroRNA (miRNA), miR-181a, is enriched in the brain, and inhibition of miR-181a reduced astrocyte death in vitro and infarct volume after stroke in vivo. This study investigated the role of miR-181a in neuronal injury in vitro and hippocampal neuronal loss in vivo after forebrain ischemia. miR-181a levels were altered by transfection with mimic or antagomir. N2a cells subjected to serum deprivation and oxidative stress showed less cell death when miR-181a was reduced and increased death when miR-181a increased; protection was associated with increased Bcl-2 protein. In contrast, transfected primary neurons did not show altered levels of cell death when miR-181a levels changed. Naive male rats and rats stereotactically infused with miR-181a antagomir or control were subjected to forebrain ischemia and cornus ammonis (CA)1 neuronal survival and protein levels were assessed. Forebrain ischemia increased miR-181a expression and decreased Bcl-2 protein in the hippocampal CA1 region. miR-181a antagomir reduced miR-181a levels, reduced CA1 neuronal loss, increased Bcl-2 protein, and significantly prevented the decrease of glutamate transporter 1. Thus, miR-181a antagomir reduced evidence of astrocyte dysfunction and increased CA1 neuronal survival. miR-181a inhibition is thus a potential target in the setting of forebrain or global cerebral ischemia as well as focal ischemia.     

Effect of 6-aminonicotinamide on metabolism of astrocytes and C6-glioma cells

Brain tissue cells have been shown to use two predominant pathways for energy production. The first of these is the pentose phosphate shunt, and the second is glycolysis, followed by the TCA cycle. Inhibition of these pathways can result in a reduction of ATP, and changes in the concentration of various metabolites. In the present study, the acute and chronic effect of 6-aminonicotinamide (6-AN) (0.01, 0.02, and 0.03 mg/ml) was examined on astrocytes and C6-glioma cells. Following this treatment, glucose, lactate, glutamate, ATP, and PCr were assayed according to the procedures of Lowry and Passonneau. Our data indicated that following 15 minutes treatment of astrocytes and C6-glioma with 6AN there was no significant difference in the concentration of metabolites measured. However, following 24 hours treatment there was a significant increase in glucose concentration and significant reduction in the concentration of ATP, PCr, lactate and glutamate in both cell types. Morphological changes appeared later following 48 hours treatment with 6-AN in both cell types. Glucose accumulation can be explained by the fact that it is the precursor to both glycolysis and the pentose phosphate shunt. If these processes are inhibited, glucose will obviously accumulate and products like ATP, PCr, lactate and glutamate will decrease. Additionally, there was significant differences in concentration of glucose and lactate between astrocytes and C6-glioma cells. The significance of these differences has been discussed.     

星形胶质细胞内三羧酸循环在福尔马林诱导的大鼠脊髓中枢敏化中的作用

目的:探讨星形胶质细胞内的三羧酸循环在福尔马林诱导的大鼠炎性持续性痛、慢性痛和脊髓中枢敏化中的作用。方法:在大鼠右后肢足底注射福尔马林(5%,0.05 ml)制备炎性持续性痛大鼠模型,鞘内注射100 nmol/ml氟代柠檬酸(fluorocitrate,FC)和/或5×104nmol/ml谷氨酸(L-glutamate,Glu)后,观察大鼠的行为学变化。结果:(1)急性期:与对照组相比,鞘内注射FC对大鼠自发伤害性行为(舔咬爪和缩腿反射)有抑制作用,而鞘内注射了Glu部分翻转了该抑制效应;(2)在慢性期,与对照组相比较,单次鞘内注射FC在3 h~2 d的时间点上显著提高大鼠同侧的50%爪缩阈值(P0.01,P0.05),而对侧50%爪缩阈值仅在第1 d时间点显示提高(P0.05)。随后在福尔马林注射后第9 d,再次鞘内注射FC,与对照组相比,能在3 h提高大鼠的同侧和对侧的50%爪缩阈值(P0.05),而在6 h阈值恢复到对照组水平(P0.05)。多次鞘内注射FC后,能够在3~7 d时间点上显著提高大鼠同侧的50%爪缩阈值(P0.01,P0.05),在2~7 d时间点上显著提高大鼠对侧的50%爪缩阈值(P0.01,P0.05)。随后在福尔马林注射后第9、10、11 d连续3 d鞘内注射FC,大鼠同侧的50%爪缩阈值的提高仅在鞘内注射日当天发生(P0.01,P0.05),次日即恢复到对照组水平(P0.05),而对侧的50%爪缩阈值在鞘内注射日第11 d及第12 d有所提高(P0.05),第13 d恢复到对照组水平(P0.05)。结论:星形胶质细胞内的三羧酸循环参与福尔马林诱导的急性痛和慢性痛的形成,但是在慢性痛的维持方面不起主导作用。     

Carbon monoxide and the CNS: challenges and achievements

Haem oxygenase (HO) and its product carbon monoxide (CO) are associated with cytoprotection and maintenance of homeostasis in several different organs and tissues. This review focuses upon the role of exogenous and endogenous CO (via HO activity and expression) in various CNS pathologies, based upon data from experimental models, as well as from some clinical data on human patients. The pathophysiological conditions reviewed are cerebral ischaemia, chronic neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer''s and Parkinson''s diseases), multiple sclerosis and pain. Among these pathophysiological conditions, a variety of cellular mechanisms and processes are considered, namely cytoprotection, cell death, inflammation, cell metabolism, cellular redox responses and vasomodulation, as well as the different targeted neural cells. Finally, novel potential methods and strategies for delivering exogenous CO as a drug are discussed, particularly approaches based upon CO-releasing molecules, their limitations and challenges. The diagnostic and prognostic value of HO expression in clinical use for brain pathologies is also addressed.

Linked Articles

This article is part of a themed section on Pharmacology of the Gasotransmitters. To view the other articles in this section visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.2015.172.issue-6     

Increased Extracellular Brain Glutamate in Acute Liver Failure: Decreased Uptake or Increased Release?

Glutamatergic dysfunction has been suggested to play an important role in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy (HE) in acute liver failure (ALF). Increased extracellular brain glutamate concentrations have consistently been described in different experimental animal models of ALF and in patients with increased intracranial pressure due to ALF. High brain ammonia levels remain the leading candidate in the pathogenesis of HE in ALF and studies have demonstrated a correlation between ammonia and increased concentrations of extracellular brain glutamate both clinically and in experimental animal models of ALF. Inhibition of glutamate uptake or increased glutamate release from neurons and/or astrocytes could cause an increase in extracellular glutamate. This review analyses the effect of ammonia on glutamate release from (and uptake into) both neurons and astrocytes and how these pathophysiological mechanisms may be involved in the pathogenesis of HE in ALF.     

Effects of O-GlcNAcylation on functional mitochondrial transfer from astrocytes

Mitochondria may be transferred from cell to cell in the central nervous system and this process may help defend neurons against injury and disease. But how mitochondria maintain their functionality during the process of release into extracellular space remains unknown. Here, we report that mitochondrial protein O-GlcNAcylation is a critical process to support extracellular mitochondrial functionality. Activation of CD38-cADPR signaling in astrocytes robustly induced protein O-GlcNAcylation in mitochondria, while oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation showed transient and mild protein modification. Blocking the endoplasmic reticulum – Golgi trafficking with Brefeldin A or slc35B4 siRNA reduced O-GlcNAcylation, and resulted in the secretion of mitochondria with decreased membrane potential and mtDNA. Finally, loss-of-function studies verified that O-GlcNAc-modified mitochondria demonstrated higher levels of neuroprotection after astrocyte-to-neuron mitochondrial transfer. Collectively, these findings suggest that post-translational modification by O-GlcNAc may be required for supporting the functionality and neuroprotective properties of mitochondria released from astrocytes.     

Connexins in neurons and glia：targets for intervention in disease and injury

Both neurons and glia throughout the central nervous system are organized into networks by gap junctions. Among glia, gap junctions facilitate metabolic homeostasis and intercellular communication. Amo...     

骨髓单个核细胞移植在脑梗死小鼠脑内分化为星形胶质样细胞的研究

目的探讨骨髓单个核细胞(BMMNC)移植对大脑中动脉栓塞小鼠的治疗作用以及脑内分化情况。方法选择41只雄性昆明小鼠,采用线栓法制备大脑中动脉栓塞模型后,将制模成功的34只小鼠随机分为溶剂组和BMMNC移植组(移植组),每组17只。分别于模型成功后1、3、7、14和28d采用改良神经功能缺损评分(mNSS)评价小鼠神经损害严重程度,免疫荧光双标法观测BMMNC脑内分化情况。结果与溶剂组比较,移植组1、3、7、14和28d各时间点mNSS明显降低[(12.54±1.50)分vs(13.02±1.52)分、(9.52±1.25)分vs(11.17±1.05)分、(7.92±1.24)分vs(10.75±1.06)分、(5.82±1.23)分vs(7.93±1.23)分、(4.92±1.25)分vs(6.83±1.12)分,P<0.05];移植组梗死皮质及海马齿状回区5-溴脱氧尿嘧啶核苷和胶质纤维酸性蛋白双标阳性细胞。结论BMMNC移植在脑梗死小鼠脑内分化为星形胶质样细胞,能显著改善脑梗死小鼠神经功能。     

S100B and schizophrenia

The research for peripheral biological markers of schizophrenia, although abundant, has been unfruitful. In the last 2 decades, the S100B protein has made its own room in this area of research. S100B is a calcium‐binding protein that has been proposed as a marker of astrocyte activation and brain dysfunction. Research results on S100B concentrations and schizophrenia clinical diagnosis are very consistent; patients with schizophrenia have higher S100B concentrations than healthy controls. The results regarding schizophrenia subtypes and clinical characteristics are not as conclusive. Age of patients, body mass index, illness duration and age at onset have been found to show no correlation, a positive correlation or a negative correlation with S100B levels. With respect to psychopathology, S100B data are inconclusive. Positive, negative and absence of correlation between S100B concentrations and positive and negative psychopathology have been reported. Methodological biases, such as day/night and seasonal variations, the use of anticoagulants to treat biological samples, the type of analytical technique to measure S100B and the different psychopathological scales to measure schizophrenia symptoms, are some of the factors that should be taken into account when researching into this area in order to reduce the variability of the reported results. The clinical implications of S100B changes in schizophrenia remain to be elucidated.