SSEA‐4 and YKL‐40 positive progenitor subtypes in the subventricular zone of developing human neocortex

The glycosphingolipid SSEA‐4 and the glycoprotein YKL‐40 have both been associated with human embryonic and neural stem cell differentiation. We investigated the distribution of SSEA‐4 and YKL‐40 positive cells in proliferative zones of human fetal forebrain using immunohistochemistry and double‐labeling immunofluorescence. A few small rounded SSEA‐4 and YKL‐40 labeled cells were present in the radial glial BLBP positive proliferative zones adjacent to the lateral ganglionic eminence from 12th week post conception. With increasing age, a similarly stained cell population appeared more widespread in the subventricular zone. At midgestation, the entire subventricular zone showed patches of SSEA‐4, YKL‐40, and BLBP positive cells. Co‐labeling with markers for radial glial cells (RGCs) and neuronal, glial, and microglial markers tested the lineage identity of this subpopulation of radial glial descendants. Adjacent to the ventricular zone, a minor fraction showed overlap with GFAP but not with nestin, Olig2, NG2, or S100. No co‐localization was found with neuronal markers NeuN, calbindin, DCX or with markers for microglial cells (Iba‐1, CD68). Moreover, the SSEA‐4 and YKL‐40 positive cell population in subventricular zone was largely devoid of Tbr2, a marker for intermediate neuronal progenitor cells descending from RGCs. YKL‐40 has recently been found in astrocytes in the neuron‐free fimbria, and both SSEA‐4 and YKL‐40 are present in malignant astroglial brain tumors. We suggest that the population of cells characterized by immunohistochemical combination of antibodies against SSEA‐4 and YKL‐40 and devoid of neuronal and microglial markers represent a yet unexplored astrogenic lineage illustrating the complexity of astroglial development. GLIA 2016;64:90–104     

Sequential activation of microglia and astrocyte cytokine expression precedes increased iba‐1 or GFAP immunoreactivity following systemic immune challenge

Activation of the peripheral immune system elicits a coordinated response from the central nervous system. Key to this immune to brain communication is that glia, microglia, and astrocytes, interpret and propagate inflammatory signals in the brain that influence physiological and behavioral responses. One issue in glial biology is that morphological analysis alone is used to report on glial activation state. Therefore, our objective was to compare behavioral responses after in vivo immune (lipopolysaccharide, LPS) challenge to glial specific mRNA and morphological profiles. Here, LPS challenge induced an immediate but transient sickness response with decreased locomotion and social interaction. Corresponding with active sickness behavior (2–12 h), inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression was elevated in enriched microglia and astrocytes. Although proinflammatory cytokine expression in microglia peaked 2‐4 h after LPS, astrocyte cytokine, and chemokine induction was delayed and peaked at 12 h. Morphological alterations in microglia (Iba‐1⁺) and astrocytes (GFAP⁺), however, were undetected during this 2–12 h timeframe. Increased Iba‐1 immunoreactivity and de‐ramified microglia were evident 24 and 48 h after LPS but corresponded to the resolution phase of activation. Morphological alterations in astrocytes were undetected after LPS. Additionally, glial cytokine expression did not correlate with morphology after four repeated LPS injections. In fact, repeated LPS challenge was associated with immune and behavioral tolerance and a less inflammatory microglial profile compared with acute LPS challenge. Overall, induction of glial cytokine expression was sequential, aligned with active sickness behavior, and preceded increased Iba‐1 or GFAP immunoreactivity after LPS challenge. GLIA 2016;64:300–316     

Effects of triptolide on hippocampal microglial cells and astrocytes in the APP/PS1 double transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease

The principal pathology of Alzheimer's disease includes neuronal extracellular deposition of amyloid-beta peptides and formation of senile pl aques,which in turn induce neuroinflammation in the brain.Triptolide,a natural extract from the vine-like herb Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F,has potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive efficacy.Therefore,we determined if triptolide can inhibit activation and proliferation of microglial cells and astrocytes in the APP/PS1 double transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.We used 1 or 5 μg/kg/d triptolide to treat APP/PS1 double transgenic mice(aged 4–4.5 months) for 45 days.Unbiased stereology analysis found that triptolide dose-dependently reduced the total number of microglial cells,and transformed microglial cells into the resting state.Further,triptolide(5 μg/kg/d) also reduced the total number of hippocampal astrocytes.Our in vivo test results indicate that triptolide suppresses activation and proliferation of microglial cells and astrocytes in the hippocampus of APP/PS1 double transgenic mice with Alzheimer's disease.     

Uncoupling protein 2 in the glial response to stress:implications for neuroprotection

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are free radicals thought to mediate the neurotoxic effects of several neu-rodegenerative disorders. In the central nervous system, ROS can also trigger a phenotypic switch in both astrocytes and microglia that further aggravates neurodegeneration, termed reactive gliosis. Negative regulators of ROS, such as mitochondrial uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) are neuroprotective factors that decrease neuron loss in models of stroke, epilepsy, and parkinsonism. However, it is unclear whether UCP2 acts purely to prevent ROS production, or also to prevent gliosis. In this review article, we discuss published evidence supporting the hypothesis that UCP2 is a neuroprotective factor both through its direct effects in decreasing mitochondrial ROS and through its effects in astrocytes and microglia. A major effect of UCP2 activation in glia is a change in the spectrum of secreted cytokines towards a more anti-inlfammatory spec-trum. There are multiple mechanisms that can control the level or activity of UCP2, including a variety of metabolites and microRNAs. Understanding these mechanisms will be key to exploitingthe protective effects of UCP2 in therapies for multiple neurodegenerative conditions.     

Role of Dopamine Transporter Against MPTP (1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) Neurotoxicity in Mice

We investigated the alterations of dopamine transporter (DAT)-immunopositive cells against MPTP neurotoxicity, in comparison with tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)- immunopositive neurons and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-immunopositive cells. This study showed that DAT and TH immunoreactivity was decreased gradually in the striatum and substantia nigra of mice after MPTP treatment. The patterns of the intense TH-immunoreactive fibers and cell bodies were similar to those of DAT-immunoreactive fibers and cell bodies in the striatum and substantia nigra of mice after MPTP treatment. In contrast, GFAP immunoreactivity was increased gradually in the striatum and substantia nigra after MPTP treatment. In our double-labeled immunostaining with anti-DAT and anti-GFAP antibodies, DAT immunoreactivity was observed only in the nigral dopaminergic neurons, but not in the reactive astrocytes. The present results provide further evidence that the functional damage of DAT may precede dopaminergic neuronal death after MPTP treatment, although the decrease in the number of TH-immunopositive neurons was more pronounced than that in the number of DAT-immunopositive neurons. Furthermore, our findings demonstrate that MPTP can selectively injure the dopaminergic neurons which DAT proteins are predominantly distributed on the striatum and substantia nigra. The results provide beneficial information for MPTP-induced neurodegeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neuronal pathway.     

CD4+ T cells support glial neuroprotection, slow disease progression, and modify glial morphology in an animal model of inherited ALS

Neuroinflammation, marked by gliosis and infiltrating T cells, is a prominent pathological feature in diverse models of dominantly inherited neurodegenerative diseases. Recent evidence derived from transgenic mice ubiquitously overexpressing mutant Cu(2+)/Zn(2+) superoxide dismutase (mSOD1), a chronic neurodegenerative model of inherited amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), indicates that glia with either a lack of or reduction in mSOD1 expression enhance motoneuron protection and slow disease progression. However, the contribution of T cells that are present at sites of motoneuron injury in mSOD1 transgenic mice is not known. Here we show that when mSOD1 mice were bred with mice lacking functional T cells or CD4+ T cells, motoneuron disease was accelerated, accompanied by unexpected attenuated morphological markers of gliosis, increased mRNA levels for proinflammatory cytokines and NOX2, and decreased levels of trophic factors and glial glutamate transporters. Bone marrow transplants reconstituted mice with T cells, prolonged survival, suppressed cytotoxicity, and restored glial activation. These results demonstrate for the first time in a model of chronic neurodegeneration that morphological activation of microglia and astroglia does not predict glial function, and that the presence of CD4+ T cells provides supportive neuroprotection by modulating the trophic/cytotoxic balance of glia. These glial/T-cell interactions establish a novel target for therapeutic intervention in ALS and possibly other neurodegenerative diseases.     

降纤酶对大鼠局灶性脑缺血再灌注损伤的影响

目的　探讨降纤酶对大鼠局灶性脑缺血再灌注损伤的影响及其机制。方法　健康雄性Wistar大鼠 15 6只 ,随机分为降纤酶组和生理盐水组 ,采用大脑中动脉线栓模型 ,腹腔注射降纤酶 8U kg ,应用氯化三苯四氮唑染色、SP免疫组织化学检测胶质纤维酸性蛋白 (GFAP) ,观察缺血不同时间大鼠脑梗死体积比、神经元改变和星形胶质细胞数量、周长和积分光度值改变。结果　降纤酶治疗组大鼠脑梗死体积明显小于生理盐水组 ;反应性星形胶质细胞数量、周长、染色强度均明显高于生理盐水组 ;出血梗死明显少于生理盐水组。结论　降纤酶对大鼠局灶性脑缺血再灌注损伤有保护作用 ,反应性星形胶质细胞增生 ,血管内皮细胞损伤的减轻是其脑保护机制之一     

Insights into Human Astrocyte Response to H5N1 Infection by Microarray Analysis

Influenza virus infects not only the respiratory system but also the central nervous system (CNS), leading to influenza-associated encephalopathy and encephalitis. Astrocytes are essential for brain homeostasis and neuronal function. These cells can also be infected by influenza virus. However, genome-wide changes in response to influenza viral infection in astrocytes have not been defined. In this study, we performed gene profiling of human astrocytes in response to H5N1. Innate immune and pro-inflammatory responses were strongly activated at 24 h post-infection (hpi). Antiviral genes, as well as several cytokines and chemokines, including CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11, were robustly induced. Phosphorylation of p65 and p38 can be activated by viral infection, suggesting their potential critical roles in H5N1-induced pro-inflammatory response. Moreover, H5N1 infection significantly upregulated the gene expressions related to the neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction pathway at 24 hpi, such as MC2R, CHRNG, P2RY13, GABRA1, and HRH2, which participant in synaptic transmission and may take part in CNS disorders induced by H5N1 infection. Targeting key components of innate immune response and the neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction pathway may provide a strategy to control H5N1-induced encephalopathy and encephalitis. This research can contribute to the understanding of H5N1 pathogenesis in astrocytes.     

Astrocytes‐derived exosomes induce neuronal recovery after traumatic brain injury via delivering gap junction alpha 1‐20 k

Astrocytes are more resistant to ischemia and hypoxia in the acute phase of brain injury after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Previous study showed that gap junction alpha 1 (GJA1) phosphorylation can increase the survival of damaged astrocytes. The GJA1‐20 k expression in neurons co‐culture with astrocytes was positively correlated with exosomes uptake. This study aims to explore the effect of exogenous GJA1‐20 k carried by astrocyte‐derived exosomes on neurons apoptosis and mitochondrial function after TBI. Astrocytes were co‐cultured with the neuron with/without damage from air pressure. Exosomes were isolated, extracted from the culture medium by differential ultra‐centrifugation, and verified by electron microscopy. Immunofluorescence staining, tunnel, western blot were employed to detect exosomes marker CD60, apoptosis, and mitochondrial function related protein expression and GJA1‐20 k in cell culture. A rat model of hydraulic injury TBI was built, and exosomes was transferred. 2,3,5‐Triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining and immunohistochemistry staining of Nissl and microtubule associated protein 2 were used to detect the brain damage. A transwell stereo culture model of astrocytes and TBI‐like injured neuron was constructed. The exosomes derived from astrocytes promoted the recovery of damaged neuron by in vitro exosome treatment. Compared with GJA1‐20 k knockout exosome control group, GJA1‐20 k exosomes were uptaken by neuron and downregulated the apoptosis rate and upregulated mitochondrial function to promote neuronal recovery. Finally, the results were validated by TTC staining and damaged tissue sections of rat TBI model. This study contributes to a better understanding of the astrocyte‐neuron protection mechanism in TBI and provides a potential new target for the treatment of TBI.     

奥卡西平对戊四氮致癫(癎)幼鼠海马胶质纤维酸性蛋白表达的影响

目的 探讨奥卡西平(OXC)对慢性癫(癎)幼鼠海马星形胶质细胞表达胶质纤维酸性蛋白(GFAP)的影响.方法 50只21日龄SD幼年雄性大鼠,随机分为5组:A组(阴性对照组)、B组(阳性对照组)、C组(OXC低剂量组)、D组(OXC中剂量组)、E组(OXC高剂量组),每组10只.A组每日腹腔注射等量9g·L-1盐水;B组腹腔注射戊四氮(PTZ)40 mg·kg-1·d-1;C～E组腹腔注射PTZ 40 mg·kg-1·d-1后分别予OXC 100 mg·kg-1、OXC 200 mg·kg-1、OXC 300 mg·kg-1灌胃.连续用药21 d,观察幼鼠体质量、行为学表现;采用免疫组织化学方法检测幼鼠海马GFAP阳性星形胶质细胞的表达;应用实时荧光定量PCR方法检测幼鼠海马组织中GFAP mRNA表达.结果 与A组相比,其他各组幼鼠均有癫(癎)发作,海马组织中均发现GFAP阳性细胞数量增多(P＜0.01),GFAP mRNA的表达增加(P＜0.01);与B组相比,C～E组幼鼠癫(癎)发作潜伏时间延长,发作级别低,点燃率低(Pa＜0.05),GFAP阳性细胞数量逐渐减少(P＜0.05),GFAP mRNA表达降低(P＜0.05);与其他各组相比,E组幼鼠体质量增长缓慢(P＜0.05).结论 OXC对PTZ点燃的慢性癫(癎)引起的脑损伤有保护作用,其程度与剂量有关,但大剂量OXC会抑制幼鼠生长;OXC的这种神经保护作用可能是通过抑制星形胶质细胞表达GFAP实现的.