Social memory, social stress, and economic behaviors

Social memory plays a pivotal role in social behaviors, from mating behaviors to cooperative behaviors based on reciprocal altruism. More specifically, social/person recognition memory is supposed, by behavioral-economic and game-theoretic analysis, to be required for tit-for-tat like cooperative behaviors to evolve under the N-person iterated prisoner's dilemma game condition. Meanwhile, humans are known to show a social stress response during face-to-face social interactions, which might affect economic behaviors. Furthermore, it is known that there are individual differences in a social stress response, which might be reflected in individual differences in various types of economic behaviors, partially via different capacities of social memory. In the present study, we investigated the acute effects of social stress-induced free cortisol (a stress hormone) elevation on hippocampus-dependent social memory by utilizing the Trier social stress test (consisting of a public speech and a mental arithmetic task). We also examine the correlation between an economic behavior-related personality trait (i.e., general trust scale) and social stress-induced cortisol elevations. We found that (1) social stress acutely impairs social memory during social interaction and (2) interpersonal trust reduces social stress response. Together, interpersonal trust may modulate economic behaviors via stress hormone's action on social cognition-related brain regions.     

The neurobiology of social recognition, approach, and avoidance.

Rodent models of social behavior provide powerful experimental tools for elucidating the molecular, cellular, and neurobiological mechanisms regulating social behavior. Here I discuss several rodent models that have been particularly useful in understanding the neurobiology of the discrimination of social verses nonsocial stimuli, affiliative behavior, and social avoidance. The oxytocin knockout mouse model has been useful for understanding how, in the context of social recognition, the brain may process social stimuli differently from nonsocial stimuli. Vole species that are either highly social and monogamous or solitary and promiscuous have provided a model for investigating the brain mechanisms involved in promoting social interactions. Comparative studies in these species strongly implicate the neuropeptides oxytocin and vasopressin in the regulation of affiliative behavior as well as social attachment. A conditioned defeat model in hamsters may provide a useful model to understand how adverse social experiences may facilitate social avoidance. These models have yielded valuable insights into the regulation of social behaviors, and the findings of these studies may prove useful in understanding the neural mechanisms that underlie individual differences in human personality traits.     

Oxytocin, vasopressin, and human social behavior

There is substantial evidence from animal research indicating a key role of the neuropeptides oxytocin (OT) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) in the regulation of complex social cognition and behavior. As social interaction permeates the whole of human society, and the fundamental ability to form attachment is indispensable for social relationships, studies are beginning to dissect the roles of OT and AVP in human social behavior. New experimental paradigms and technologies in human research allow a more nuanced investigation of the molecular basis of social behavior. In addition, a better understanding of the neurobiology and neurogenetics of human social cognition and behavior has important implications for the current development of novel clinical approaches for mental disorders that are associated with social deficits (e.g., autism spectrum disorder, social anxiety disorder, and borderline personality disorder). This review focuses on our recent knowledge of the behavioral, endocrine, genetic, and neural effects of OT and AVP in humans and provides a synthesis of recent advances made in the effort to implicate the oxytocinergic system in the treatment of psychopathological states.     

Oxytocin, sexually dimorphic features of the social brain, and autism

The common features of autism spectrum disorder, a highly heritable representative pervasive developmental disorder with significant heterogeneity and multiple-genetic factors, are severe dysfunction in social reciprocity, abnormalities in social brain regions, and disproportionately low probability in the female gender. Concomitantly, certain domains of mental function, such as emotional memory and social reciprocity, show a significant sex difference. In addition, recent neuroimaging studies have shown significant sexual dimorphisms in neuroanatomical correlates of social cognition. Recently, some sexually dimorphic factors, including oxytocin, vasopressin, and genes linked with the x-chromosome, have received attention because of their possible contribution to mental development especially in the social cognitive domain. Taking this evidence together, it is hypothesized that a sexually dimorphic factor associated with social reciprocity could affect characteristics of autism spectrum disorder including dysfunction in social reciprocity, abnormalities in social brain regions, and disproportionately low probability in female gender. This review article overviews sexual dimorphisms in clinical features of autism spectrum disorder, in normal social cognition, and in social brain function and structure. The association of oxytocin with sexual dimorphisms, social reciprocity, neural correlates of social cognition, and the pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorder were further summarized. Recent studies have suggested that oxytocin plays a role in social attachment in experimental animals, in enhancing social interactive ability in human adults, and in the pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorder. Thus, the ongoing accumulated evidence suggests that oxytocin deserves to be examined as a candidate that causes the sexually dimorphic aspect of human social reciprocity, social brain development and the pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorder.     

Social cognition,social competence,negative symptoms and social outcomes: Inter-relationships in people with schizophrenia

Social deficits are common in people with schizophrenia and the treatment of deficits in social competence has been a long-time treatment strategy. However, negative symptoms and social cognitive deficits also contribute to social dysfunction. In this study, we examined the correlations between everyday social outcomes, a performance based measure of social competence, and performance on 8 different social cognition tests in 179 patients with schizophrenia. Social cognition, social competence, and motivation-related negative symptoms accounted for 32% of the variance in real-world social outcomes. In addition, two different social cognition tests, along with expression-related negative symptoms accounted for 32% of the variance in performance-based assessments of social competence. These data suggest that negative symptoms exert an important influence on social outcomes and social competence, but not social cognition, and that social cognition and social competence exert separable influences on real-world social outcomes. Improving social outcomes seems to require a multi-faceted approach which considers social cognition, social competence, and negative symptoms.     

Social class, marriage, and fertility in schizophrenia

The hypothesis is presented that the etiology of schizophrenia is neurodevelopmental: schizophrenia is a disorder occurring in extremely late maturers, whereas manic-depressive psychosis affects early maturers. This hypothesis is related to recent neurobiological findings and also to the following epidemiological and demographic topics covered by the author in her review of social class, marriage, and fertility in schizophrenia: Kretschmer's observations of body type differences between patients with schizophrenia and manic-depressive psychosis; trends in the incidence of schizophrenia and manic-depressive psychosis in industrialized versus developing economies; changing epidemiology of the subtypes of schizophrenia and of manic-depressive psychosis; sex differences in manic-depressive psychosis and schizophrenia; fertility and childlessness in schizophrenia; selection for marriage in schizophrenia; marriage patterns, inbreeding, and schizophrenia; social class, social mobility, and occupation in schizophrenia; social mobility and social selection; excess of schizophrenia in the lowest strata of society; social class, course, and outcome; and social stress and schizophrenia.     

Social anxiety,depression, and PTSD in Vietnam veterans

Many Vietnam veterans with PTSD report a high level of social anxiety and avoidance. Many traumatized individuals also suffer from symptoms of depression, which is often associated with significant problems in social functioning. In order to explore the relationship between social anxiety, depression, and PTSD, we recruited a group of Vietnam veterans with PTSD (n = 27), veterans with other mental disorders (n = 20), and veterans with no mental disorders (n = 35). Participants were administered diagnostic interviews and some of the most commonly used social anxiety instruments. Although the groups did not differ in their rates of social phobia, veterans with PTSD scored highest in most social anxiety measures. Veterans with PTSD were also more likely to be clinically depressed than veterans without PTSD at the time of the assessment. When controlling for the level of depression, the three groups no longer differed in any of the social anxiety measures. Furthermore, level of depression was the best predictor for group membership. These findings suggest that social anxiety in Vietnam combat veterans with PTSD is closely associated with mood disturbance, social withdrawal, and isolation associated with depression.     

Imitation, simulation, and schizophrenia

The social significance of imitation is that it provides internal tools for understanding the actions of others by simulating or forming internal representations of these actions. Imitation plays a central role in human social behavior by mediating diverse forms of social learning. However, imitation and simulation ability in schizophrenia has not been adequately addressed. The major aim of the present study was to investigate imitation ability in schizophrenia patients and healthy individuals by examining simple motor imitation that involved the replication of meaningless manual and oral gestures, and the imitation of emotional facial expressions, which has implications for mentalizing. A secondary aim of the present study was to investigate the relationships among imitation ability, social functioning, and working memory. Subjects were asked to mimic hand gestures, mouth movements, and facial expressions of others, online. Clinical symptoms, social competence, and working memory were also assessed. Patients with schizophrenia were significantly impaired on all imitation tasks. Imitation errors were significantly correlated with reduced social competence and increased negative symptoms. However, imitation ability was only weakly associated with working memory. To summarize, the present study examined the ability of patients with schizophrenia to imitate the behaviors demonstrated by others. The results indicate a fundamental impairment in imitation ability in schizophrenia and implicate a possible difficulty in simulation. Further research to determine the neural and developmental origins of this difficulty could be extremely helpful in elucidating the role of simulation in schizophrenia and to establish the complex relationships among mental representation, imitation, and social cognition.     

Social neuroscience: the social brain, oxytocin, and health

Complex social behaviors allow various social organisms to create emergent organizations that extend beyond the individual. Social neuroscience is a burgeoning field that strives to understand the genetic, hormonal, and neural mechanisms responsible for these social structures and behaviors. Consequently, social neuroscience is highly interdisciplinary in nature and embraces the application of methods ranging from the molecular to the molar to investigate the reciprocal interactions between biological, cognitive, and social levels of analysis. The broad scope of such an endeavor introduces particular challenges associated with the integration of multiple levels of analysis. In the present mini-review, we highlight some recent findings in the field of social neuroscience and demonstrate the potential benefits of applying multilevel integrative analysis to the study of social behavior and its influence on physiology and health.     

Bracing for the worst,but behaving the best: Social anxiety,hostility, and behavioral aggression

Social anxiety is marked by viewing social interactions as competitive, hypervigilance to signs of social threat, and avoidance of interactions that may result in social rejection. Therefore, social anxiety should relate to: (1) greater hostile feelings toward others, (2) heightened perceptions of hostility in others, and (3) relatively low levels of violence and aggression. To date, however, little is known about these relationships. In four independent non-clinical samples (total N = 2643), we examined relationships between social anxiety, hostility, and aggression using a range of measures that included both self-report and behavioral assessments. In Study 1, social anxiety correlated positively with feeling hostile toward others. In Study 2, social anxiety correlated positively with hostile perceptions of others. In Study 3, social anxiety was related to less positive attitudes toward behaving violently toward one's relationship partner. In Study 4, social anxiety was related to less aggressive behavior, as indicated by less intense and prolonged noise blasts delivered to a fictitious opponent. Taken together, these four studies paint a picture of socially anxious people as bracing for the worst by feeling and perceiving hostility in the social environment, but behaving the best by refraining from aggression and violence.     

Social neuroscience: The social brain,oxytocin, and health

Complex social behaviors allow various social organisms to create emergent organizations that extend beyond the individual. Social neuroscience is a burgeoning field that strives to understand the genetic, hormonal, and neural mechanisms responsible for these social structures and behaviors. Consequently, social neuroscience is highly interdisciplinary in nature and embraces the application of methods ranging from the molecular to the molar to investigate the reciprocal interactions between biological, cognitive, and social levels of analysis. The broad scope of such an endeavor introduces particular challenges associated with the integration of multiple levels of analysis. In the present mini-review, we highlight some recent findings in the field of social neuroscience and demonstrate the potential benefits of applying multilevel integrative analysis to the study of social behavior and its influence on physiology and health.     

Social buffering of the stress response: Diversity, mechanisms, and functions

Protracted or repeated activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA) system is associated with a variety of physical and psychological pathologies. Studies dating back to the 1970s have documented many cases in which the presence of a social companion can moderate HPA responses to stressors. However, there also are many cases in which this “social buffering” of the HPA axis is not observed. An examination of the literature indicates that the nature of the relationship between individuals is crucial in determining whether or not social buffering of the HPA response will occur. Other factors that affect social buffering, either directly or by influencing the social relationship, include the social organization of the species, previous experience, gender, integration into a social unit, and the developmental stage at which individuals are examined. Current evidence suggests that social buffering involves mechanisms acting at more than one level of the CNS. It is suggested that, in addition to promoting health, social buffering may have evolved to direct the establishment of social relationships, and to facilitate developmental transitions in social interactions appropriate for different life stages.     

The Maladaptive Pursuit of Consumption: the Impact of Materialism,Pain of Paying,Social Anxiety,Social Support,and Loneliness on Compulsive Buying

The current research examined the capability of materialism, pain of paying, social anxiety, social support, and loneliness to predict compulsive buying. A sample of students attending a public university located in the northeast USA were surveyed. A multiple regression indicated materialism, pain of paying, anhedonia, coping with substances, and social support received from family were predictors of compulsive buying. Pain of paying was the strongest predictor of compulsive buying. Understanding factors that affect compulsive buying aids the identification of compulsive buying and informs the treatment of compulsive buying. Treatment models may be more effective if additional attention is given to addressing and developing social support networks of compulsive buyers. Such social support may act as a buffer against the social anxiety compulsive buyers experience and may help reduce feelings of anhedonia and use of substances to control social anxiety.

     

Social phobia: etiology, neurobiology, and treatment

Social phobia is a common and often disabling condition, with an etiology that is not established. There is evidence at several levels for an interplay of biological and psychological processes in social phobia. Genetic studies show that both genetic and environmental factors are important, with evidence pointing to associations with 2 genetic conditions, autism and fragile X syndrome. Behavioral inhibition has emerged as an important precursor to social phobia and possibly to other anxiety disorders. Epidemiologic and clinical studies have suggested that factors within the family environment, such as overprotection, overcontrol, modeling of anxiety, criticism, and in some cases abuse, can play a role in the development of social phobia. During childhood, complex interactions between brain system disturbances that mediate responses to negative social cues and factors in the social setting may lead to the development of a distorted set of internal "blueprints" for social behavior. The impact of severe social anxiety on brain systems that mediate behavioral change may prevent patients from learning better "blueprints." These can be taught through cognitive-behavioral therapies. The effective control of social anxiety with medications enables patients to recover; whether recovery can last after discontinuation of medications may depend on whether a new "blueprint" has been developed and whether stable changes in affected brain systems have occurred. Neuroimaging techniques are at the early stage of identifying abnormalities at the neurotransmitter and systems levels.     

Emotion recognition, 'theory of mind,' and social behavior in schizophrenia

Several studies have demonstrated that patients with schizophrenia are impaired in recognizing emotions from facial expressions and in appreciating other people's mental states--the latter commonly referred to as 'theory of mind.' The question as to how social cognitive skills relate to patients' actual social behavior is, however, largely unanswered. This study examined emotion recognition, 'theory of mind,' and social behavior in schizophrenia. Emotion recognition, 'theory of mind,' executive functioning, 'crystallized' verbal intelligence, psychopathology, and social behavior were assessed in patients with schizophrenia compared with a healthy control group. Patients were significantly impaired on all tasks involving executive functioning, emotion recognition, and 'theory of mind.' Impaired executive functioning did, however, only partially account for the deficits in social perception and social cognition. Social perception and cognition in schizophrenia predicted the odds of being a patient significantly better than nonsocial cognition. Severe social behavioral abnormalities were linked to the duration of the illness, and even more so to 'theory of mind' deficits. Considering impaired social perception and social cognition significantly contributes to the understanding of social behavioral problems in schizophrenia.     

Social reward: interactions with social status,social communication,aggression, and associated neural activation in the ventral tegmental area

Nearly all species engage in a variety of intraspecific social interactions, and there is evidence that these interactions are rewarding. Less is known, however, about the factors that influence social reward. Using the conditioned place preference paradigm, we tested whether social interactions are rewarding for male Syrian hamsters. We also tested whether social stimuli increase neural activation in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), a component of the mesolimbic reward system, and how individual differences in social behavior and experience influence neural activation. In the present study, we found that hamsters developed a conditioned place preference for social interactions, but the effects were significantly stronger in dominant animals compared with subordinates. The number of Fos‐immunoreactive cells in the VTA was significantly higher in hamsters that had engaged in a direct social encounter compared with hamsters exposed to a caged stimulus hamster or controls. Interestingly, socially experienced males had more Fos‐immunoreactive cells in the VTA than socially naive males after exposure to a social stimulus. Surprisingly, the amount of Fos immunoreactivity in the VTA induced by a social stimulus was correlated with the amount of aggressive/dominance behaviors that had been observed during interactions that had occurred 2 months earlier. Our results indicate that social interactions between males are rewarding, and that social dominance increases the reward value. Social interactions stimulate the mesolimbic reward system, and social experience enhances its response to novel social stimuli and may produce long‐term changes in the neural mechanisms that mediate the maintenance of dominance over long periods of time.     

Social competence in schizophrenia: premorbid adjustment, social skill, and domains of functioning

The relations between premorbid adjustment, social skill, and domains of functioning (symptoms, social adjustment) were examined in a group of 107 schizophrenic, schizoaffective, and affective disorder patients. Premorbid sexual adjustment was moderately correlated with social skill in the schizophrenic and schizoaffective patients. Schizophrenic patients had the lowest premorbid adjustment and social skill, followed by schizoaffectives, and then affective patients. Within the schizophrenic group, social skill was significantly related to both current social adjustment and negative symptoms, but not positive symptoms. Similar but weaker effects were found for premorbid adjustment. The results suggest that deficits in social skill are correlated with poor premorbid and morbid social adjustment of schizophrenics.     

Wealth, Health, and the Moderating Role of Implicit Social Class Bias

Background

Subjective social status (captured by the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status) is in many cases a stronger predictor of health outcomes than objective socioeconomic status (SES).

Purpose

The study aims to test whether implicit beliefs about social class moderate the relationship between subjective social status and inflammation.

Methods

We measured implicit social class bias, subjective social status, SES, and baseline levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), a marker of inflammation, in 209 healthy adults.

Results

Implicit social class bias significantly moderated the relationship between subjective social status and levels of IL-6, with a stronger implicit association between the concepts “lower class” and “bad” predicting greater levels of IL-6.

Conclusions

Implicit social class bias moderates the relationship between subjective social status and health outcomes via regulation of levels of the inflammatory cytokine IL-6. High implicit social class bias, particularly when one perceives oneself as having low social standing, may increase vulnerability to inflammatory processes.     

Abstinence from social media use,subjective well‐being,stress, and loneliness

Purpose: Studies with experimental designs in which the association between participants’ subjective well‐being and their use of social media is studied remain rare. This study tested the effect of abstaining from social media use on participants’ well‐being, affect, perceived stress, and sense of perceived loneliness. Design and Methods: Randomized, controlled design. Sixty‐eight participants were randomized to one of two conditions. Findings: Those who abstained from social media use, compared with those in the control group, evidenced a decline in life satisfaction, an increase in negative affect, and an increase in loneliness. Practice Implications: Excessive social media use poses deleterious consequences for users, but abstinence may not necessarily exact positive changes; this outcome is dependent on the functions for which social media are used.     

Neurocognition, social cognition, perceived social discomfort, and vocational outcomes in schizophrenia

Social cognition has been suggested to be an important mediating variable in the relationship between neurocognition and functional outcome. The present study tested this model in relation to work rehabilitation outcome and added self-reported social discomfort as a possible mediator. One hundred fifty-one participants with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder participated in a 26-week work therapy program. Neurocognition was constructed as a latent construct comprised of selected variables from our intake test battery representing executive functioning, verbal memory, attention and working memory, processing speed, and thought disorder. Social cognition at intake was the other latent construct comprised of variables representing affect recognition, theory of mind, self-reported egocentricity, and ratings of rapport. The 2 latent constructs received support from confirmatory factor analysis. Social discomfort on the job was based on their self-report on a weekly questionnaire. In addition, we constructed a composite rehabilitation outcome that was based on how many hours they worked, how well they worked, and how complex was the job that they were doing. Path analysis showed direct effects of neurocognition on rehabilitation outcome and indirect effects mediated by social cognition and social discomfort. This model proved to be a good fit to the data and far superior to another model where only social cognition was the mediating variable between neurocognition and rehabilitation outcome. Findings suggest that neurocognition affects social cognition and that poorer social cognition leads to social discomfort on the job, which in turn leads to poorer rehabilitation outcomes. Implications for rehabilitation interventions are discussed.