Quality indicators of hospitalized children influenced by clinical pharmacist services: A systematic review

BackgroundCare for children who are hospitalized can be optimized if the pharmacist, in conjunction with the multidisciplinary team, promotes the rational use of medicines. In this sense, the evaluation of the quality of these clinical services through indicators is important in the planning, decision making of pharmacists and managers of these services.ObjectiveTo characterize which health indicators were influenced by the pharmaceutical clinical services for the care of children in hospitals.MethodsA systematic review was performed. The search for data was made on the bases: Cochrane, Embase, Lilacs, Pubmed and Web of Science. Then, the search included studies in which evaluated the impact of pharmaceutical clinical services on clinical, economic and humanistic outcomes.ResultsThe search resulted in 11 included studies. In this review, four pharmaceutical clinical services were found: pharmacotherapy review, multiprofessional team interventions, antimicrobial stewardship program and pharmaceutical services at discharge hospital. The most influenced outcome indicators were length of hospital stay, with average time in the group that received the pharmacotherapy review service, and interventions multiprofessional team with a 6.45-day vs. 10.83 days in the control group; hospital readmissions with a significant reduction of non-scheduled readmission of 30 days in the ntimicrobial stewardship program; reduction of hospital costs and caregiver satisfaction.ConclusionIn this study, we can highlight that pharmacotherapy review, multiprofessional team interventions and Antimicrobial Stewardship Program that significantly reduced the clinical results of length of hospital stay and hospital readmission, as well as a significant reduction of hospital costs.     

Cost analysis of pharmaceutical care provided to HIV-infected patients: an ambispective controlled study

Background

Studies have shown that pharmaceutical care can result in favorable clinical outcomes in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients, however, few studies have assessed the economic impact. The objective of this study was to evaluate the clinical and economic impact of pharmaceutical care of HIV-infected patients.

Methods

A controlled ambispective study was conducted in Brazil from January 2009 to June 2012. Patients were allocated to either intervention or control group. The control group was followed according to standard care while the intervention group was also followed by a pharmacist at each physician appointment for one year. Effectiveness outcomes included CD4+ count, viral load, absence of co-infections and optimal immune response, and economic outcomes included expenses of physician and pharmaceutical appointments, laboratory tests, procedures, and hospitalizations, at six months and one year.

Results

Intervention and control groups included 51 patients each. We observed significant decreases in total pharmacotherapy problems during the study. At six months, the intervention group contained higher percentages of patients without co-infections and of patients with CD4+ >500 cells/mm³. None of the differences between intervention and control group considering clinical outcomes and costs were statistically significant. However, at one year, the intervention group showed higher percentage of better clinical outcomes and generated lower spending (not to procedures). An additional health care system daily investment of US$1.45, 1.09, 2.13, 4.35, 1.09, and 0.87 would be required for each additional outcome of viral load <50 copies/ml, absence of co-infection, CD4+ >200, 350, and 500 cells/mm³, and optimal immune response, respectively.

Conclusion

This work demonstrated that pharmaceutical care of HIV-infected patients, for a one-year period, was able to decrease the number of pharmacotherapy problems. However, the clinical outcomes and the costs did not have statistical difference but showed higher percentage of better clinical outcomes and lower costs for some items.     

临床药师开展药物治疗管理的实践经验与成本-效益分析

目的：应用药物治疗管理（MTM）的标准化流程为患者提供药学服务,通过成本-效益分析评价MTM是否具有经济学效益。方法：应用MTM模式对患者进行药学服务,记录患者一般情况,疾病、用药情况及药品费用,对患者的用药及生活方式问题,分析并提出行动计划,随访。成本-效益研究以MTM服务为成本,药品治疗费用的减少为效益,计算服务前后的成本-效益比。结果：临床药师对80例患者进行了MTM服务,最终完成59例,患者男女比例为39:20,平均年龄(62.39±15.75)岁,使用药物446种,人均(7.88±0.53)种,发现患者用药问题与生活问题255例并进行干预,干预成功率73.33%。服务前后用药成本分别作为两组进行统计分析,发现干预后用药费用明显低于干预前（P＜0.05）,成本-效益比值B/C=4.25＞1。结论：临床药师开展药物治疗管理（MTM）服务可以提高患者依从性,改善用药问题与生活方式,且为患者提供积极的经济学影响。     

Cost benefit analysis of clinical pharmacist interventions in medical intensive care unit in Palestine medical complex: Prospective interventional study

BackgroundClinical pharmacy services in the critical health care settings have expanded dramatically.Study problem.Clinical pharmacy services have limited implementation in Palestine. Many intensive care units (ICUs) patients do not get the intended beneficial effects of their treatment due to treatment related problems and their consequent cost burden.AimTo evaluate the impact of the clinical pharmacist interventions on costs of care and safety of patient by assessing treatment related problems among medical ICUs patients in Palestine.MethodologyA prospective interventional study was conducted at medical ICU of the major public hospital in Ramallah city over a 4-month period (between September and December 2020). Patients were randomly assigned to either an intervention or a control group (With / without clinical pharmacist involvement). Treatment related problems were identified in both study groups by the clinical pharmacist, but interventions were only provided to the intervention group. The total economic benefit included both cost savings from intervention and cost avoidance from preventable adverse drug events (ADEs) resulted from CP interventions. The primary outcomes with the clinical pharmacist interventions were net benefit and benefit to cost ratio, which were calculated using previously published methodologies and adjusted to the Palestinian settings. The analysis of CP interventions acceptance by physicians was performed.ResultsDuring the 4-month study period, the 117 patients admitted to the ICU were included into the analysis; 66 patients in the intervention group and 51 in the control group. The interventions made by a clinical pharmacist resulted in direct cost saving of NIS8,990.05 ($2799.63) and cost avoidance of NIS22,087.5 ($ 6878.37). Translated into a net savings of NIS188.35 ($58.65) per intervention and NIS470 ($146.36) per patient. Comparison of benefits (NIS31,077.55) ($9678.00) and costs (NIS19,043.928) ($5930.55) indicate a net economic benefit to the institution of (NIS 12,033.623) ($3747.44) and a benefit cost ratio of 1.63.ConclusionIntegrating a clinical pharmacist in the ICU team was investment that resulted in benefits in term of cost saving and cost avoidance.     

临床药师对乳腺癌合并甲状腺功能减退患者的药学监护

目的：探讨临床药师对乳腺癌靶向治疗合并甲状腺功能减退患者药学监护的意义。方法：临床药师对一名合并甲状腺功能减退症的乳腺癌患者进行全程用药监护,重点分析单抗类抗肿瘤药物和甲状腺功能减退症治疗药物使用情况。结果：曲妥珠单抗与甲状腺功能减退症用药互有影响,造成用药风险的增加及药物疗效的降低,临床药师对其进行用药监护后,提高了患者生存质量,实现个体化监护。结论：对于存在甲状腺功能减退的乳腺癌患者,临床药师需重点实施药学服务,评估疾病及药物相互作用影响,促进合理用药。     

Clinical and economic impact of clinical pharmacist interventions regarding antimicrobials on critically ill patients

BackgroundIncorporating in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) a clinical pharmacist who performs interventions on antimicrobials may be cost-effective.ObjectivesTo evaluate the clinical and economic impact of clinical pharmacist interventions on antimicrobials in an ICU. To identify drug related problems and medication errors detected by the pharmacist.MethodsA retrospective observational study was performed to analyze drug related problems, medication errors and clinical pharmacist interventions related to antimicrobials in adults admitted to an ICU in a 5-month period. The economic impact of pharmacist interventions was estimated considering difference in cost derived from antimicrobial treatment, adverse drug events and clinical pharmacist time.ResultsA total of 212 drug related problems were detected in 114 patients, 18 being medication errors. Clinical pharmacist developed one intervention for each problem identified. 204 interventions (96.2%) were considered important with improved patient care and 7 (3.3%) very important. No negative impact of any intervention was identified. Physicians accepted 97.6% of the interventions. A potential saving of 10,905 € was estimated as a result of pharmacist interventions and 4.8 € were avoided per euro invested in a clinical pharmacist.ConclusionsA clinical pharmacist performing interventions on antimicrobials in the ICU has a positive impact on patient care and decreases costs.     

1例肺癌患者化疗期间引起幻觉的药学监护

目的：探讨临床药师在恶性肿瘤患者化疗期间发生罕见不良反应时药学监护的作用与意义。方法：临床药师介入1例化疗期间出现幻觉的肺癌患者,充分利用药师专业背景,参与临床用药,实施药学监护。结果：经过积极、合理、有效的治疗后,患者痊愈出院。对患者进行追踪随访,未再发生该不良反应。结论：临床药师积极参与药学监护,提供药学服务,促进医院安全合理用药具有重要的意义。     

Impact of pharmacist interventions during transition of care in older adults to reduce the use of healthcare services: A scoping review

BackgroundCurrent literature has shown increasing risk of error in transition of care between different healthcare settings, especially in the older population. Moreover, drug-related hospital readmission has been reported due to lack of appropriate communication. However, the literature is not clear about the impact of pharmacist interventions during transition of care of older adults on the reduction in use of healthcare services.ObjectiveThe goal of the scoping review was to describe the impact of pharmacist interventions during transitions of care for older adults on the use of healthcare services.MethodsMEDLINE was searched for randomized controlled trials and controlled studies that analyzed pharmacist interventions during transition of care of older adults with regard to use of healthcare services. Four reviewers, grouped in pairs, independently screened all references published from 1990 to 2019 and extracted and analyzed the data. A pharmaceutical model of 8 pharmacist-led interventions was adapted from literature to compare the included studies.ResultsThere were 1527 publications screened, 17 of which met inclusion criteria. Pharmacist-led interventions decreased the use of healthcare services in 11 of these studies. The majority of studies were of very good or good quality based on Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Pharmacist were implicated at all times during the transition of care process (i.e. admission/during stay, discharge and post-discharge) in 4 of the effective studies, whereas none did in the not effective studies. More interventions were accomplished by pharmacists in studies with positive outcomes.ConclusionBy diversifying their interventions at different moments throughout transition of care, pharmacists can reduce the use of healthcare services for older adults during transition of care. This scoping review also shows the need to better understand key components of post-discharge interventions and to have a dynamic pharmaceutical model accepted by the scientific community.     

1例鲍曼不动杆菌感染老年AECOPD患者的药学监护

摘 要 目的： 探讨老年慢性阻塞性肺病急性加重( AECOPD )患者的治疗方案及药学监护重点。 方法: 选取典型AECOPD病例,参考COPD治疗指南, 分析治疗方案的合理性,制定个体化的药学监护计划并实施全程化药学监护。结果:该患者的药学监护方案安全、有效。通过全程化药学监护, 临床药师及时排除并解决了药物治疗的问题, 为老年患者提供了合理用药的意见。结论: 加强老年AECOPD患者的全程化药学监护十分重要。     

Impact of pharmacist care in the management of autoimmune disorders: A systematic review of randomized control trials and non-randomized studies

IntroductionAutoimmune disorders are chronic, self-mediated, misdirected immune responses against their own immune system. It required intensive, complex and costly drug treatment regimen increased the risk of pharmacotherapy error and adversely affects patients. Hence, pharmacist care will have vital roles in autoimmune disorders to achieve health related outcomes.ObjectivesThis review aimed to gather evidence on the impact of pharmacist care on clinical, humanistic and economic outcomes, adherence to medications, and drug related problems in the management of autoimmune disorders among the usual care group.MethodologyA comprehensive review conducted in compliance with the PRISMA statement and systematic search was performed across five databases included PubMed Central, Web of Sciences, Scopus, Cochrane Library and google scholar from inception until August 2020. This research included full-text articles of randomized and non-randomized studies that evaluated impact of pharmacist care in autoimmune disorders.ResultsA total of nine studies were included (seven RCTs and two non-RCTs), including 829 patients with autoimmune disorders. A total of four studies (80%) show an enhancement in at least one clinical parameter due to pharmacist care. A substantial improvement in at least one humanistic parameter observed in all five studies (100%). While four out of five studies (80%) clearly displayed a remarkable improvement in medication adherence in the pharmacist care group from baseline to the completion of follow-ups. One study quantified a 99.08% resolution of DRPs in the pharmacist care group. Another study estimated the cost of medical resources uses per patient and found no difference in cost-effectiveness over six months between groups.ConclusionThis review reinforces the vital contribution of pharmacists to achieve clinical outcomes, humanistic outcomes, adherence to medications and DRPs in the efficient management of autoimmune disorders. However, no notable changes in economic outcomes were observed in this review.     

临床药师在晚期帕金森病伴复杂运动并发症中的药学服务

目的探讨临床药师在晚期帕金森病伴复杂运动并发症中的药学监护。方法临床药师参与1例晚期帕金森病伴复杂运动并发症治疗的案例,分析总结临床药师在该疾病治疗中的药学服务模式。结果临床药师对该患者的药物选择进行了分析及建议,并对药物治疗中出现的不良反应进行了处理和监护的综合管理,使患者的症状得到了改善。结论临床药师为帕金森病患者提供药学服务,可有效提高患者用药安全。     

临床药师参与1例肺部镰刀菌感染患者的药学监护

目的 探讨肺镰刀菌感染患者的治疗方案及临床药师在治疗中发挥的作用.方法 临床药师参与1例肺部镰刀菌感染患者的药学监护,结合国内外文献,从抗真菌药物体外活性及临床疗效等多方面进行分析,协助医师制定治疗策略.结果 临床医师采纳建议,患者经治疗后病情好转,未发生明显不良反应,临床症状稳定后出院.结论 临床药师对患者实施个体化...     

Patients' attitude and willingness to pay for pharmaceutical care: An international message from a developing country

BackgroundSince patients are essential partners in determining priorities and resource allocation in the healthcare system, considerable efforts have been made to shift the focus of pharmacy profession from drug dispensing to patient-oriented care. Accordingly, the assessment of patient-oriented care has become a prominent method to evaluate the quality of the healthcare services delivered and willingness to pay (WTP) to receive them.Objective(s)To determine patients’ attitude towards pharmaceutical care services among general population in Jordan and their WTP for this service.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted in a teaching hospital in Jordan over a period of six months. A contingent valuation method was used, with closed-ended questions to elicit participants' attitudes and WTP for pharmaceutical care services.ResultsA total of 223 participants were interviewed. Most of the participants showed a positive attitude towards pharmaceutical care services, with an average attitude score of 0.82 (±0.19). Almost 96.0% of participants believed that pharmacists must be committed to more counseling roles than dispensary activities. The majority of participants (194, 87.0%) expressed their interest in pharmacists checking their medications at least once per month. Most of the participants (212, (95.1%) believed that the pharmacist should be reimbursed for providing a pharmaceutical care service that would potentially reduce medication-related problems (MRPs) by 50%. Of these, 208 (93.3%) participants were willing to pay out of their pockets an average maximum amount of $3.95 (±4.23) for the pharmaceutical care services they may receive to reduce 50% of the risk of MRPs.ConclusionsThis study revealed that Jordanian people have a supportive attitude regarding pharmacists’ abilities in providing pharmaceutical care services in addition to dispensing. Majority of participants in this study were willing to pay for pharmaceutical care services that would reduce the risk of MRPs.     

Billing for pharmacists' cognitive services in physicians' offices: Multiple methods of reimbursement

ObjectivesTo evaluate the charges and reimbursement for pharmacist services using multiple methods of billing and determine the number of patients that must be managed by a pharmacist to cover the cost of salary and fringe benefits.SettingLarge teaching ambulatory clinic in North Carolina.Main outcome measuresAnnual charges and reimbursement, patient no-show rate, clinic capacity, number of patients seen monthly and annually, and number of patients that must be seen to pay for a pharmacist's salary and benefits.ResultsA total of 6,930 patient encounters were documented during the study period. Four different clinics were managed by the pharmacists, including anticoagulation, pharmacotherapy, osteoporosis, and wellness clinics. “Incident to” level 1 billing was used for the anticoagulation and pharmacotherapy clinics, whereas level 4 codes were used for the osteoporosis clinic. The wellness clinic utilized a negotiated fee-for-service model. Mean annual charges were $65,022, and the mean reimbursement rate was 47%. The mean charge and collection per encounter were $41 and $19, respectively. Eleven encounters per day were necessary to generate enough charges to pay for the cost of the pharmacist. Considering actual reimbursement rates, the number of patient encounters necessary increased to 24 per day. “What if” sensitivity analysis indicated that billing at the level of service provided instead of level 1 decreased the number of patients needed to be seen daily. Billing a level 4 visit necessitated that five patients would need to be seen daily to generate adequate charges. Taking into account the 47% reimbursement rate, 10 level 4 encounters per day were necessary to generate appropriate reimbursement to pay for the pharmacist.ConclusionsUnique opportunities for pharmacists to provide direct patient care in the ambulatory setting continue to develop. Use of a combination of billing methods resulted in sustainable reimbursement. The ability to bill at the level of service provided instead of a level 1 visit would decrease the number of patients needed to pay for a pharmacist.     

Pharmacist-led collaborative medication management programs for oral antineoplastic therapies: A systematic literature review

ObjectivesThe aim of this systematic review is to summarize the structure, process, and outcomes of pharmacist-led collaborative medication management programs for oral antineoplastic therapies (OATs).MethodsIncluded studies were peer-reviewed journal articles published in English, between January 2000 to May 2020, and reporting on pharmacist-led collaborative medication management programs for patients on OATs. To be included, studies had to report on the pharmacy practice model, pharmacist interventions, and outcomes of the medication management program. The Donabedian model informed the data extraction and summary. Two independent researchers assessed the risk of bias (confounding) for all included studies (n = 12) using the NIH tool and Cochrane ROBINS-I for observational research.ResultsThere were 12 studies that met inclusion criteria. The structure of the programs included hiring oncology pharmacists to deliver interventions, standardized templates for electronic medical record documentation, and administrative workflow changes (e.g., automatic referrals). The most common pharmacist interventions (processes) were patient education and counseling, adverse event monitoring, and dose modifications. All studies reported one or more positive outcomes, including improved patient adherence, safety, cost savings, cost avoidance, and patient satisfaction. All included studies used an observational study designs, and the majority of studies had moderate to high risk of bias.ConclusionThe evidence suggests that pharmacist-led collaborative medication management programs may have beneficial clinical and economic outcomes. The implementation of these programs could be strengthened by using a conceptual framework to guide program development, implementation, and evaluation and effectiveness-hybrid study designs to assess clinical and implementation outcomes. The risk of bias should be addressed by using more robust study designs and rigorous data collection and analysis methods.     

基于“互联网+”探索药事服务模式的问卷调查研究

目的 研究患者对"互联网+"药事服务的接受程度及未来搭建网上药事服务平台的方向,探讨"互联网+"时代下药事服务类型及模式。方法 自制调查问卷,经过三轮专家审阅后形成问卷,在省内的3家"三甲"医院对600例门诊患者发放问卷。结果 488例患者中417例（85.5%）认为药师通过互联网提供药学服务是有必要的,其中网上预约药物配送、网上药师咨询、网上用药教育、药学知识的科普及网上售药的接受程度分别为73.5%,78.2%,64.3%,70.4%,47.4%。网上药师咨询中微信（68.8%）最受中青年患者的欢迎,中老年患者偏爱电话及短信等服务。当前"互联网+"药事服务在医保报销、运营监管、物流配送等方面存在问题。结论 "互联网+"药事服务是一种值得探讨的新型服务模式,其开展需完善相关的法律法规并加强监管,为患者的权益提供保障。