隐蔽性高血压患者血管活性物质的变化

目的探讨隐蔽性高血压患者血浆中血栓素A2(TXA2)、前列环素(PGI2)、神经肽Y(NPY)、降钙素基因相关肽(CGRP)水平变化并评价其对隐蔽性高血压患者血压水平的影响。方法78例研究对象分为健康对照组(A组,n=30),隐蔽性高血压组(B组,n=18)及原发性高血压组(C组,n=30)。检测各组血浆中TXA2、PGI2、NPY、CGRP水平并作比较。结果B组患者血浆中TXA2(1151.0±144.0)ng/L和NPY(138.1±16.1)ng/L水平高于A组[TXA2:(940.5±172.5)ng/L;NPY:(99.6±19.7)ng/L;P均<0.01],但是低于C组患者[TXA2:(1416.6±145.2)ng/L;NPY(169.8±26.2)ng/L;P均<0.01];而B组患者血浆中PGI2和CGRP水平低于A组[PGI2:(171.4±44.0)vsA组:(244.4±51.2)ng/L;CGRP:(56.2±15.6)vsA组:(79.8±17.9)ng/L;P均<0.01],高于C组患者[PGI2:(171.4±44.0)vsC组:(108.3±41.9)ng/L;CGRP:(56.2±15.6)vsC组:(39.2±16.6)ng/L;P<0.05或P<0.01]。经多元线性回归分析:B组患者白昼SBP水平与TXA2、NPY水平直线相关(P均<0.01);白昼DBP水平与TXA2、CGRP水平直线相关(P<0.05～0.01)。结论隐蔽性高血压病人血管活性物质如TXA2、PGI2、NPY、CGRP较正常血压的人不同,表现为收缩性血管活性因子增多,舒张性血管因子减少,提示这些血管活性物质可能参与了隐蔽性高血压的发病。     

吲哒帕胺对原发性高血压患者TXA2、PGI2含量的影响

目的研究轻中度原发性高血压患者血栓索A2(TXA2)和前列环素(PGI2)含量及二者比值的变化,评价吲哒帕胺对轻、中度原发性高血压的降压疗效以及对TXA2、PGI2和TXA2/PGI2的影响,探讨吲哒帕胺对血管内皮功能和血小板活性影响的机制.方法对30例轻、中度高血压患者和20例正常对照者的血浆采用放射免疫法测定TXA2、PGI2的水平,对高血压患者给予吲哒帕胺治疗2周,并进行治疗前、后对照比较.结果高血压组TXA2水平明显高于对照组,而PGI2水平明显低于对照组,TXA2/PGI2明显高于对照组(P均＜0.01).吲哒帕胺治疗组,降压有效率为60%,治疗后TXA2水平明显降低,PGI2水平明显升高,TXA2/PGI2明显下降(P均＜0.01).结论原发性高血压患者TXA2及TXA2/PGI2升高,PGI2水平下降.吲哒帕胺对轻、中度原发性高血压患者疗效显著,可引起TXA2水平显著下降,PGI2水平显著升高,对高血压所致的血管内皮损害具有保护作用.     

不同海拔地区高血压患者血浆降钙素基因相关肽及肾上腺髓质素的变化

目的 探讨不同海拔高血压患者血浆降钙素基因相关肽(CGRP)及肾上腺髓质素(ADM)的含量变化及意义.方法 采用放射免疫法检测海拔分别为10 m,2260 m及4300 m地区的高血压患者及正常对照组血浆CGRP及ADM的含量.结果 不同海拔高血压血浆ADM含量分别为(低海拔47.7±7.1),(中海拔91.4±59.9),(高海拔66.5±15.3)ng/L均高于正常对照组,其中低、中度海拔组差异显著(P均＜0.001).随着海拔增高正常对照组及高血压组血浆ADM均有增高且差异显著.不同海拔高血压组血浆CGRP含量分别为(低海拔54.6±17.3),(中海拔56.2±49.1),(高海拔21.7±9.2)ng/L均低于正常对照组,其中高海拔组差异显著(P＜0.001).低、中度海拔正常对照组血浆CGRP含量均高于高海拔正常对照组(P均＜0.001),低、中度海拔高血压组血浆CGRP含量均高于高海拔高血压组(P均＜0.001).结论 随着海拔的增高高血压组及正常对照组血浆CGRP的含量减少.另高血压患者血浆ADM增高是机体的一种保护机制,ADM与CGRP有显著的负效应.     

丹参对急性胰腺炎患者血浆内皮素和P-选择素变化的影响

目的:观察急性胰腺炎(AP)患者血浆内皮素(ET)和P-选择素的变化特点及丹参对其的影响.方法:将82例AP患者随机分为一般治疗组40例和丹参组42例,同时以健康体检者20例作对照组.A组用基础治疗,B组用基础治疗 丹参.采用放射免疫法分别测定血浆ET和P-选择素.结果:重症急性胰腺炎(SAP)组ET和P-选择素显著高于轻型急性胰腺炎(MAP)组和正常组(147.56±10.65 ng/L vs 85.13±9.47,52.27±6.23 ng/L,P＜0.01;85.32±6.21 μg/L vs 30.01±4.82,10.26±2.57 μg/L,P＜0.01).SAP组ET和P-选择素呈显著正相关(r=0.705,P＜0.01).AP患者经一般治疗后ET和P-选择素的水平较治疗前差异无显著性(P＞0.05).丹参组治疗后较治疗前ET及P-选择素水平明显下降(69.77±7.65 ng/L vs 100.54±11.41 ng/L,P＜0.01;4.07±4.75 μg/L vs 54.52±9.79 μg/L,P＜0.01),平均住院日与一般治疗组相比明显缩短(9.76±1.77 d vs 14.27±2.55 d,P＜0.01).结论:血浆内皮素和P-选择素参与了AP的发病过程,丹参对AP具有一定的治疗作用.     

正加速度适应性训练对大鼠胃黏膜PGI_2、TXA_2含量及TXA_2/PGI_2比值的影响

目的:研究正加速度(+Gz)适应性训练对大鼠胃黏膜前列环素(prostacyclin,PGI2)、血栓素A2(thromboxane A2,TXA2)含量及TXA2/PGI2比值变化的影响.方法:40只♂SD大鼠随机分为5组,每组8只,分别标记为为A、B、C、D、E组.A组大鼠为空白对照,不做处理,B组大鼠+5 Gz值暴露5 min,1次/d,连续暴露5 d,C组大鼠+10 Gz值暴露5 min,1次/d,连续暴露5 d,D组大鼠适应性训练(即+4 Gz值暴露3 min,1次/d,连续暴露5 d)后+5 Gz值暴露5 min,1次/d,连续暴露5 d,E组大鼠适应性训练(即+4 Gz值暴露3 min,1次/d,连续暴露5 d)后+10 Gz值暴露5 min,1次/d,连续暴露5 d.试验结束后肉眼和光学显微镜下观察胃黏膜损伤情况,计算损伤指数,ELISA法检测胃黏膜内TXB2、6-酮-前列腺素F1?(6-keto-prostaglandin F1?,6-K-PGF1?)的含量,并计算TXB2/6-K-PGF1?的比值.结果:肉眼和光学显微镜下观察,除A组外,其余各组胃黏膜均有损伤,D组损伤轻于B组,E组损伤轻于C组.适应性训练后,D组损伤指数小于B组(0.875±0.641 vs 1.750±0.707,P0.05),E组损伤指数小于C组(2.250±1.035 vs 5.625±1.767,P0.05);D组TXB2低于B组(159.588 pg/m L±36.216 pg/m L vs251.018 pg/m L±50.845 pg/m L,P0.01),E组TXB2低于C组(150.476 pg/m L±48.589p g/m L v s 331.538 p g/m L±79.102 p g/m L,P0.01);D组6-K-P G F1?高于B组(72.242p g/m L±12.413 p g/m L vs 52.015 p g/m L±11.827 pg/m L,P0.01),E组6-K-PGF1?高于C组(87.426 pg/m L±15.833 pg/m L vs 44.726pg/m L±18.867 pg/m L,P0.01);D组TXB2/6-K-PGF1?比值小于B组(2.283±0.705 vs 5.128±1.788,P0.01),E组TXB2/6-K-P G F1?比值小于C组(2.250±1.035 vs 8.599±4.157,P0.01).结论:适应性训练可明显减轻持续+Gz暴露带来的胃黏膜损伤,其机制与PGI2含量升高、TXA2含量降低以及TXA2/P G I2比值降低有关.     

糖尿病合并高血压大鼠瘦素和神经肽Y水平变化

目的探讨糖尿病合并高血压大鼠血清、下丘脑神经肽Y(NPY)和瘦素水平变化。方法 30只SD大鼠随机分为对照组、糖尿病组、糖尿病合并高血压组,分别制作2型糖尿病模型和糖尿病合并高血压模型,各剔除1只。测定空腹血糖水平、血清NPY和瘦素水平,免疫组织化学法测定下丘脑瘦素和NPY表达情况。结果与对照组比较,糖尿病组及糖尿病合并高血压组空腹血糖、瘦素和NPY水平均升高,差异有统计学意义(P均0.05)。糖尿病合并高血压组瘦素和NPY水平高于糖尿病组和对照组,数值为[(0.73±0.24)μg/L vs.(0.46±0.14)μg/L]、[(0.73±0.24)μg/L vs.(0.24±0.05)μg/L],[(300.53±35.74)ng/L vs.(247.46±40.36)ng/L]、[(300.53±35.74)ng/L vs.(133.52±16.58)ng/L],差异有统计学意义(P均0.05)。糖尿病组及糖尿病合并高血压组的瘦素和NPY表达水平均高于对照组,差异有统计学意义(P均0.05)。同时,糖尿病合并高血压组的下丘脑瘦素和NPY水平均高于糖尿病组,差异有统计学意义(P均0.05)。糖尿病合并高血压组大鼠的血清瘦素和NPY水平呈正相关(r=0.952,P0.05)、下丘脑瘦素和NPY表达水平呈正相关(r=0.956,P0.05)。结论糖尿病合并高血压大鼠血清、下丘脑瘦素和神经肽水平升高,代谢紊乱加重。     

高血压并冠状动脉粥样硬化与辅助性T淋巴细胞亚群

背景辅助性T细胞亚群中Th1细胞分泌干扰素(IFN-γ),Th2细胞分泌白介素4(IL-4),有报道认为动脉粥样硬化病人Th1/Th2平衡紊乱.目的 探讨血管紧张素Ⅱ(Ang Ⅱ),IFN-γ和IL-4与高血压患者冠状动脉粥样硬化的关系,研究他们的Th1/Th2功能平衡有无紊乱.方法 临床及冠状动脉造影确诊的高血压合并冠状动脉粥样硬化患者30例为病例组,冠状动脉造影排除冠状动脉粥样硬化的高血压患者22例为对照组.采用放射免疫法检测血浆Ang Ⅱ水平,ELISA法检测血浆中IFN-γ和IL-4水平.结果 1)病例组Ang Ⅱ[( 64.7±30.1) vs 对照组(36.1±12.0)ng/L,P＜0.05]、IFN-γ[(10.3±5.4) vs (4.2±1.5)ng/L,P＜0.01]水平增高;2)病例组IL-4水平无明显变化[(15.7±7.0) vs 对照组(13.5±7.0)ng/L,P＞0.05];3)病例组IFN-γ与IL-4比值较对照组增大(0.72±0.34 vs 0.35±0.17,P＜0.01);4)Ang Ⅱ水平与IFN-γ水平呈正相关(r=0.51,P＜0.01),而与IL-4水平无相关性(r=0.11,P＞0.05).结论 高血压患者的高Ang Ⅱ水平使辅助性T淋巴细胞亚群Th1细胞活性升高,导致辅助性T淋巴细胞亚群Th1/Th2的功能失衡与冠状动脉粥样硬化发生、发展有关.     

住院老年高血压患者中原发性醛固酮增多症的检出率

目的探讨住院老年高血压患者中原发性醛固酮增多症(PA)的检出率。方法选择2012年1月²013年5月入住本院内科的老年高血压患者242例,均接受PA及其他相关检查,排除其他继发性高血压,并分为PA组43例和原发性高血压(EH)组199例。2组检查项目包括地塞米松抑制试验;立位和卧位试验;卡托普利试验;静脉高钠试验;血钾测定,肾上腺及(或)垂体CT扫描,主要指标为血、尿皮质醇、血浆醛固酮、肾素活性及醛固酮与肾素活性比值(ARR),全部手术患者均在术前行垂体CT扫描。比较2组相关指标。结果与EH组比较,PA组患者血浆醛固酮水平在立位[796.44(517.48,899.13)ng/L vs 489.36(431.47,586.32)ng/L]、卧位[(688.20±81.96)ng/L vs(417.63±106.25)ng/L]和服用卡托普利前、后均显著升高[(655.15±109.33)ng/L vs(411.24±114.21)ng/L,(599.64±101.34)ng/L vs(317.65±94.52)ng/L,P<0.05,P<0.01],立位、卧位状态及服用卡托普利前ARR均显著升高(P<0.05),立位状态及服用卡托普利前肾素活性均显著下降(P<0.05,P<0.01)。结论在本院同期住院的老年高血压患者中,PA的检出率较高。     

运动对高血压大鼠血浆尾加压素Ⅱ及前列腺素I2的影响

目的:研究运动对自发性高血压大鼠(SHR)血浆尾加压素Ⅱ(UⅡ)的影响。方法:雄性SHR16只,随机分为两组,即安静对照组(8只)和运动组(8只),另正常雄性Wistar大鼠(8只)作为正常对照组。SHR运动组进行8周游泳运动训练。8周后,分别测定3组鼠血浆UⅡ、前列腺素Ⅱ(PGI2)含量。结果:SHR游泳组大鼠血浆UⅡ含量较正常对照组显著性增加[(1.17±0.17)ng/ml∶(1.09±9.77)ng/ml,P0.05],SHR游泳组血压较SHR对照组显著下降[(157.6±7.06)mmHg∶(185.9±6.64)mmHg,P0.01],血浆PGI2含量较SHR对照组患者增加[(183.25±43.46)pg/ml∶(135.43±22.13)pg/ml,P0.01]。结论:适度运动能提高SHR血浆VⅡ、PGI含量,从而使舒血管物质增多,血压下降。     

不同海拔地区高血压患者血浆降钙素基因相关肽及肾上腺髓质素的变化

目的探讨不同海拔高血压患者血浆降钙素基因相关肽(CGRP)及肾上腺髓质素(ADM)的含量变化及意义。方法采用放射免疫法检测海拔分别为10m,2260m及4300m地区的高血压患者及正常对照组血浆CGRP及ADM的含量。结果不同海拔高血压血浆ADM含量分别为(低海拔47.7±7.1),(中海拔91.4±59.9),(高海拔66.5±15.3)ng/L均高于正常对照组,其中低、中度海拔组差异显著(P均<0.001)。随着海拔增高正常对照组及高血压组血浆ADM均有增高且差异显著。不同海拔高血压组血浆CGRP含量分别为(低海拔54.6±17.3),(中海拔56.2±49.1),(高海拔21.7±9.2)ng/L均低于正常对照组,其中高海拔组差异显著(P<0.001)。低、中度海拔正常对照组血浆CGRP含量均高于高海拔正常对照组(P均<0.001),低、中度海拔高血压组血浆CGRP含量均高于高海拔高血压组(P均<0.001)。结论随着海拔的增高高血压组及正常对照组血浆CGRP的含量减少。另高血压患者血浆ADM增高是机体的一种保护机制,ADM与CGRP有显著的负效应。     

Hypertension prevalence and control in Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia

This study examines the prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, using both the American Heart Association and conventional thresholds (130/80 and 140/90 mm Hg, respectively). In this randomized cross‐sectional study, two‐stage cluster sampling was used to obtain a sample of 4515 individuals aged ≥20 years. Hypertension was defined by the use of antihypertensives in the last 2 weeks or a blood pressure at or above the thresholds of 140/90 and 130/80 mm Hg. The mean age of the participants was 41.1 ± 14.0 years and 54.5% were women. Hypertension prevalence was 25.6% (using 140/90 mm Hg) and 46.5% (using 130/80 mm Hg). Prevalence increased with age and below 50 years men were consistently more likely to be hypertensive. Among hypertensive participants, the rates of awareness, treatment, and control were 69.7%, 46.8%, and 24.0% (using 140/90 mm Hg) and 49.1%, 25.8%, and 6.4% (using 130/80 mm Hg, respectively). Men had lower rates of awareness, treatment, and control compared with women, with the most pronounced differences at younger ages. This study shows that awareness, treatment, and control rates in Ulaanbaatar are better than in most low‐ and middle‐income countries but are still suboptimal. The largest “care gap” was in young men where a regulatory requirement for annual workplace blood pressure screening has the potential to enhance care. A major hypertension control program has just been initiated in Ulaanbaatar.     

Redefining primary hyperaldosteronism as “The Syndrome of Inappropriate Aldosterone Secretion (SIALDS)”: A common but unrecognized cause of hypertension

The current screening and diagnostic recommendations for detecting Primary Hyperaldosteronism (PHA) focus on diagnosing the more severe and overt instances of renin-independent aldosterone production. However, milder forms of autonomous aldosterone secretion have been demonstrated to exist below the diagnostic thresholds of current PHA guidelines, and associate with clinically relevant cardiovascular risk. PHAencompasses a spectrum of renin independent aldosterone production, progressing from a subclinical state in normotensives to a full-blown clinical syndrome representing the resistant hypertension population. The authors propose the Syndrome of Inappropriately Elevated Aldosterone Secretion (SIALDS) concept as a potential new paradigm for understanding and diagnosing PHA and expanded diagnostic approach to improve early detection even in well-controlled hypertension. The authors also delve into the impact of treatments, including mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists and emerging aldosterone synthase inhibitors. Furthermore, The authors outline future research directions, proposing clinical trials to investigate the long-term identification and treatment outcomes of SIALDS.     

Is tinnitus an early voice of masked hypertension? High masked hypertension rate in patients with tinnitus

Objectives: Tinnitus is hearing a sound without any external acoustic stimulus. There are some clues of hypertension can cause tinnitus in different ways. The aim of the study was to evaluate the relationship between tinnitus and masked hypertension including echocardiographic parameters and severity of tinnitus.

Methods: This study included 88 patients with tinnitus of at least 3 months duration and 85 age and gender-matched control subjects. Tinnitus severity index was used to classify the patients with tinnitus. After a complete medical history, all subjects underwent routine laboratory examination, office blood pressure measurement, hearing tests and ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. Masked hypertension is defined as normal office blood pressure measurement and high ambulatory blood pressure level.

Results: Baseline characteristics in patients and controls were similar. Prevalence of masked hypertension was significantly higher in patients with tinnitus than controls (18.2% vs 3.5%, p = 0.002). Office diastolic BP (76 ± 8.1 vs. 72.74 ± 8.68, p = 0.01), ambulatory 24-H diastolic BP (70.2 ± 9.6 vs. 66.9 ± 6.1, p = 0.07) and ambulatory daytime diastolic BP (73.7 ± 9.5 vs. 71.1 ± 6.2, p = 0.03) was significantly higher in patients with tinnitus than control group. Tinnitus severity index in patients without masked hypertension was 0 and tinnitus severity index in patients with masked hypertension were 2 (1–5).

Conclusion: This study demonstrated that masked hypertension must be kept in mind if there is a complaint of tinnitus without any other obvious reason.     

老年高血压病患者血液流变学分析

对48例老年高血压患者（合并冠心病21例，糖尿病10例）进行血液流变学测定。结果老年高血压组纤维蛋白原（Fg）、血浆粘度（ηP）与对照组比较，P＜0．01。全血粘度（ηb）、全血还原粘度（ηh）、血沉（ESR）、血小板粘附率（PAD）及体外血栓干重（DW）与对照组比较，P＜0．05；高血压合并冠心病组与单纯高血压组比较，ηb，ηh，PAD及体外血栓长度（L）、湿重（MW）（P＜0．05），DW（P＜0．01）；高血压合并糖尿病组与单纯高血压组比较，Fg（P＜0．01），ηh，ηh，ESR，PAD，L，DW，（P＜0．05）。结果提示，老年高血压病患者血液流变学改变表现为纤维蛋白原增高、红细胞刚性增加、红细胞变形能力降低，致红细胞聚集性增强。高血压合并冠心病或糖尿病组，均以血小板反应性增高、红细胞聚集性增强、内皮功能受损及体外血栓形成能力增强更为突出。     

Portopulmonary hypertension

Portopulmonary hypertension (PPHT) is defined as precapillary pulmonary hypertension accompanied by hepatic disease or portal hypertension. Pulmonary hypertension results from excessive pulmonary vascular remodeling and vasoconstriction. These histological alterations have been indistinguishable from those of other forms of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Factors involved in the pathogenesis of PPHT include volume overload, hyperdynamic circulation, and circulating vasoactive mediators. The disorder has a substantial impact on survival and requires focused treatment. Liver transplantation in patients with moderate to severe PPHT is associated with a significantly reduced survival rate. The best medical treatment for patients with PPHT is controversial; most authors currently regard continuous intravenous application of prostacyclin as the treatment of choice for patients with severe PPHT. There is only very limited reported experience with inhaled prostacyclin or its analog, iloprost. Increasing evidence of the efficacy of the endothelin-receptor antagonist bosentan and of the phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor sildenafil is emerging in highly selected patients with PPHT. In the future, a combination therapy of the above-mentioned agents might become a therapeutic option. Other agents such as β-blockers seem to be harmful to patients with moderate to severe portopulmonary hypertension. Up-to-date, randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trials are lacking and are needed urgently. An erratum to this article is available at .     

Relationship between Blood Pressure and Nocturia in Hypertensive Patients

Objective: We investigated the relationship between the pattern of hypertension and nocturia. Methods: Seventy‐seven patients who were being treated for hypertension completed a questionnaire regarding the number of times they urinated during the day and at night, and measured their blood pressure at home immediately after rising in the morning and just before going to sleep at night. The patients' blood pressure was also measured at the clinic. The patients were divided into groups according to their blood pressure patterns. The relationship between blood pressure pattern and number of urinations during the day and at night was investigated. Results: When the patients were divided into white coat hypertension, masked hypertension, sustained hypertension, and normotension groups, the number of daytime urinations was significantly lower in the sustained hypertension group compared with the normotension and white coat hypertension groups. When the subjects were divided into morning blood pressure surge and non‐morning surge groups or into morning hypertension and non‐morning hypertension groups, the numbers of nighttime urinations was significantly higher in the morning surge group or the morning hypertension group compared with the non‐morning surge group or non‐morning hypertension group, respectively. Conclusion: Sustained hypertension and elevation of blood pressure in the early morning influence the frequency of daytime and nighttime urination, respectively. It is important to control both the blood pressure and nocturia of hypertensive patients to improve their prognosis.     

Masked hypertensives: A disguised arterial stiffness population

The aim of this study was to determine whether masked hypertension (MHT) and white coat hypertension (WCHT) could be related to increased arterial stiffness and to identify the best office cutoff values of office BP for the diagnosis of MHT and WCHT. A total of 542 consecutive patients (50.2% male, age 42.5 ± 26.2 years) were included in the study. Patients were never treated before for hypertension. Patients were classified as true normotensives (44%), true hypertensives (30%), WC hypertensives (19%), and masked hypertensives (7%). Carotid‐femoral pulse wave velocity (c‐f PWV) was 9.91 ± 0.20 m/s in true normotension, 10.26 ± 0.27 m/s in WCHT, 11.28 ± 0.47 m/s in MHT, and 11.86 ± 0.23 m/s in true hypertension after adjustment for age and sex. Decision limits yielding 65% sensitivity were 130 mm Hg for office systolic BP with 72% specificity for the diagnosis of MHT. The optimal cutoff value of 80 mm Hg for office diastolic BP provides 60% sensitivity and 68% specificity. Decision limits yielding 63% sensitivity were 150 mm Hg for office systolic BP with 72% specificity for the diagnosis of WCHT. The optimal cutoff value of 95 mm Hg for office diastolic BP provides 75% sensitivity and 51% specificity. The presence of MHT should be taken into account when increased c‐f PWV is detected in the absence of office hypertension. The optimal office BP of 130/80 mm Hg provides the best sensitivity and specificity for the diagnosis of MHT. As regards the diagnosis of WCHT, the cutoff value of 150/95 mm Hg seems to provide the best option.     

Resistant hypertension, secondary hypertension, and hypertensive crises: diagnostic evaluation and treatment

Hypertension is a very common modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Patients with hypertension represent a diverse group. In addition to those with primary hypertension, there are patients whose hypertension is attributable to secondary causes, those with resistant hypertension, and patients who present with a hypertensive crisis. Secondary causes of hypertension account for less than 10% of cases of elevated blood pressure (BP), and screening for these causes is warranted if clinically indicated. Patients with resistant hypertension, whose BP remains uncontrolled in spite of use of 3 or more antihypertensive agents, are at increased cardiovascular risk compared with the general hypertensive population. After potentially correctible causes of uncontrolled BP (pseudoresistance, secondary causes, and intake of interfering substances) are eliminated, patients with true resistant hypertension are managed by encouraging therapeutic lifestyle changes and optimizing the antihypertensive regimen, whereby the clinician ensures that the medications are prescribed at optimal doses using drugs with complementary mechanisms of action, while adding an appropriate diuretic if there are no contraindications. Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists are formidable add-on agents to the antihypertensive regimen, usually as a fourth drug, and are effective in reducing BP even in patients without biochemical evidence of aldosterone excess. In the setting of a hypertensive crisis, the BP has to be reduced within hours in the case of a hypertensive emergency (elevated BP with evidence of target organ damage) using parenteral agents, and within a few days if there is hypertensive urgency, using oral antihypertensive agents.