中国农村地区儿童血铅水平分析

目的 描述中国农村儿童血铅总体水平及分布特征,为改善农村铅污染状况提供依据.方法 通过计算机检索中国期刊全文数据库及相关文献追溯等途径,依照严格的入选标准收集并筛选国内1994-2008年10月公开发表的关于农村儿童血铅水平研究的文献进行分析.结果 我国农村儿童血铅均值为74.93μg/L(范围:41.14～193.54μg/L),铅中毒率为19.32%(范围:2.2%～43%).禁止含铅汽油使用后儿童血铅从87.53μg/L降至71.16μg/L(u=7.13,P<0.01),禁止含铅汽油使用前后农村儿童血铅水平均低于同时期全国儿童血铅水平.调整无铅汽油使用的影响后,北京、山东农村儿童血铅均值较高.分别为99.16和92.13μg/L;吉林、河北较低,分别为41.14和56.14μg/L;18篇文献的综合分析显示,农村儿童和城市儿童的血铅均值分别为77.90和87.24 μg/L(u=3.73,P<0.01);8篇文献的综合分析显示,农村儿童和工业区儿童血铅均值分别为70.25和80.86μg/L(u=10.00.P<0.01).结论 农村地区儿童血铅水平低于全国总体水平,低于城市和工业区儿童血铅水平,推广无铅汽油后农村儿童血铅水平有了明显改善.

Abstract：

Objective To evaluate Chinese rural children's blood lead levels (BLLs) and identify its distribution features and to provide data for policy development to the prevention of rural environmental lead pollution. Methods The papers on rural children's BLLs published from 1994 to Oct. 2008 were collected by using CNKI's (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) Chinese Journal Full-test Database and other ways. The papers which were eligible for the following criteria were reviewed:(l) BLLs measured by atomic absorption spectroscopy (graphite or others) or inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry; (2) strict quality control; (3) no local lead pollution sources in the areas where the screened subjects live in; (4) children aged from 0 to 14 years old; (5)sample size more than 40. Results Analysis on the included 32 papers indicated that, the mean BLLs of Chinese rural children between 1994 and 2008 was 74.93μg/L (range:41.14-193.54 μg/L)and 19.32%(range:2.2%-43%) of the subjects had BLLs higher than 100 μg/L. The rural children's BLLs changed from 87.53 μg/Lto 71.16 μg/L after the use of lead free gasoline in 2000 in China, which were both lower than the general children's BBLs before 2000 and after 2001. The children in Beijing city and Shandong province showed the highest mean BLLs , with 99.16 μg/L and 92.13 μg/L respectively; while the children in Jilin province and Hebei province showed the lowest levels, with 41.14 μg/L and 56.14 μg/L respectively. The comprehensive analysis of 18 papers indicated that the mean BLLs in rural areas and urban areas were 77.90 μg/L and 87.24μg/L respectively (u=3.73, P<0.01 ). The comprehensive analysis of 8 papers indicated that the mean BLLs in rural areas and industrial areas were 70.25 μg/Land 80.86 μg/L respectively(u=10.00,P<0.01). Conclusion The BLLs of rural children in China are lower than the general levels of children in China, and also lower than urban areas and industrial areas. Promoting lead free gasoline can make a considerable decrease in the blood lead levels of rural children.     

Preschool children's lead levels in rural communities of Zhejiang province, China

The aim of the study was to determine mean blood lead levels (BLLs) and prevalence of elevated BLLs among preschool children aged 3-6 years in Zhejian rural communities, China. Data were gathered by means of a questionnaire and blood lead analyses for 217 children who attended six randomly selected kindergartens. BLLs ranged from 25-437 microg/l. Arithmetic mean was 95 microg/l and standard deviation was 56 microg/l. BLLs of 63 samples (29.0%) were > or =100 microg/l. Children with BLLs > or =100 microg/l came from families with a higher proportion of their fathers or mothers working in conditions of potential exposure to lead, as compared to those with BLLs <100 microg/l (P < 0.01). A significantly higher proportion of children with BLLs > or =100 micro/l lived in buildings that were located near small industries, such as mechanics, furniture, or paint shop, as compared to those with BLLs <100 microg/l (P < 0.01). In conclusion, the data indicate that high levels of childhood lead exposures even prevail in rural communities and deserve authorities' attention. With the recent ban of leaded gasoline in China, emphasis should shift to other sources of exposure in children.     

2007-2011年中国儿童血铅水平及铅中毒率的分析

摘要:目的　描述2007-2011年我国儿童整体血铅水平、铅中毒率及分布特征。方法　本研究通过计算机检索2007-2012年公开发表的关于儿童血铅水平和（或）铅中毒率研究的论文,依照时间挑选出2007-2011年的文献按年份分类整理。对27省（市）88万多人做了调查研究。结果　2007-2011年我国儿童血铅水平（μg/L）分别是:68.62、59.13、53.36、66.56和46.56,平均血铅水平58.88 μg/L;而相应的儿童铅中毒率（%）分别是:19.56、11.56、12.67、10.41和7.27,平均铅中毒率是12.29%。结果说明,2007-2011年我国0～5岁儿童的血铅水平和铅中毒率随着年龄的增加而升高,尽管6岁组与5岁组相比,血铅水平及铅中毒率有所降低,但仍高于其他年龄组;同样,除2010年的儿童血铅水平比2008和2009年有所增加外,2007-2011年儿童血铅水平和铅中毒率随着年份的增加呈降低趋势。此外,经Meta分析发现,2007-2011年儿童铅中毒率和血铅水平也呈现明显的性别分布特征和地区分布特征。结论　2007-2011年我国儿童血铅水平和铅中毒率仍然较高,预防儿童铅中毒仍然是我国今后应当重视的医学问题和社会问题。     

Health effects in children aged 3-6 years induced by environmental lead exposure

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the involvement of oxidative damage in lead-induced toxicity in children aged 3-6 years and to enlighten whether oxidative stress indicators are correlated with the known indices of lead toxicity. METHODS: Blood samples were collected from 408 subjects (217 boys and 191 girls) in the urban kindergartens. The age range of the subjects was 3-6 years. Blood lead levels (BLLs) were analyzed by flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Activities of delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), and contents of glutathione (GSH) in erythrocyte and levels of plasma malondialdehyde (MDA) were analyzed spectrophotometrically in these children. RESULTS: Children with BLLs >or = 100 microg/L had significantly decreased erythrocyte ALAD activities and increased plasma MDA levels compared to the children with BLLs < 100 microg/L. No significant changes were observed in erythrocyte SOD and GSH-Px activities and GSH levels associated with elevated BLLs in these children. CONCLUSION: Present data indicate that oxidative damage could be induced by lead in children with BLLs > or = 100 microg/L, and this may partly be attributed to the inhibited ALAD activities. Statistically significant changes of oxidative stress parameters in preschool children while BLLs were more than 100 microg/L could be implicated that oxidative damage might contribute to lead-induced intellectual impairment.     

广州市使用无铅汽油十年后儿童血铅水平调查

目的 通过检测现阶段儿童血铅水平,了解广州市使用无铅汽油10年后的实施效果.方法 按分层随机抽样方法从广州市12个区、县级市中取市中心区、城郊区和郊县各1个,每个区、县再按分层各抽4所幼儿园和4所小学,从中取2373名2至12岁自愿抽血检测的儿童为调查对象,每名儿童肘部抽取静脉血1～2 ml,用0.1%Triton X-100和0.1%HNO3,对血样稀释20倍后直接以电感耦合等离子体质谱仪(ICP-MS)测定血铅.结果 2373名儿童中血铅最高值为330μg/L,最小值为10μg/L,几何均值为58.28μg/L,男童血铅均值(61.11μg/L)高于女童(55.37μg/L)(t=8.671,P=0.000).高血铅儿童共60名,占2.51%,其中男童36名(2.90%),女童24名(2.09%),差异无统计学意义(X2=1.594,P=0.207).与10年前全国情况(铅中毒平均流行率50%～85%、血铅均值120～160μg/L)相比高血铅儿童流行率减少了96.25%,血铅平均水平下降了58.37%.城乡结合部的白云区血铅均值为60.33μg/L,明显高于市中心的荔湾区和增城(血铅均值分别为58.09、56.72μg/L).结论 广州市使用无铅汽油10年后儿童铅中毒和血铅水平均大幅下降.     

Reduction of elevated blood lead levels in children in North Carolina and Vermont, 1996-1999

BACKGROUND: Few studies have examined factors related to the time required for children's blood lead levels (BLLs) > or = 10 microg/dL to decline to < 10 microg/dL. OBJECTIVES: We used routinely collected surveillance data to determine the length of time and risk factors associated with reducing elevated BLLs in children below the level of concern of 10 microg/dL. METHODS: From the North Carolina and Vermont state surveillance databases, we identified a retrospective cohort of 996 children < 6 years of age whose first two blood lead tests produced levels > or = 10 microg/dL during 1996-1999. Data were stratified into five categories of qualifying BLLs and analyzed using Cox regression. Survival curves were used to describe the time until BLLs declined below the level of concern. We compared three different analytic methods to account for children lost to follow-up. RESULTS: On average, it required slightly more than 1 year (382 days) for a child's BLL to decline to < 10 microg/dL, with the highest BLLs taking even longer. The BLLs of black children [hazard ratio (HR) = 0.84; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.71-0.99], males (HR(male) = 0.83; 95% CI, 0.71-0.98), and children from rural areas (HR(rural) = 0.83; 95% CI, 0.70-0.97) took longer to fall below 10 microg/dL than those of other children, after controlling for qualifying BLL and other covariates. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated that including censored children estimated a longer time for BLL reduction than when using linear interpolation or when excluding censored children. CONCLUSION: Children with high confirmatory BLLs, black children, males, and children from rural areas may need additional attention during case management to expedite their BLL reduction time to < 10 microg/dL. Analytic methods that do not account for loss to follow-up may underestimate the time it takes for BLLs to fall below the recommended target level.     

中国15城市儿童血铅水平及影响因素现况调查

目的调查中国城市0～6岁儿童血铅水平，为制定防止环境铅污染，保护儿童健康政策提供科学依据。方法采用分层整群随机抽样的方法在全国15个中心城市中采集0～6岁儿童末梢血17141份，采用原子吸收光谱法测定血铅水平，同时进行问卷调查。采用多元回归分析方法进行结果分析。结果中国城市儿童血铅总体均值为59．52μg/L，血铅水平≥100μg／L占10．45％，血铅水平≥200μg／L仅有0．62％。血铅水平有随着年龄增大而升高的趋势，男童的血铅水平均值（59．50μg／L）高于女童血铅水平均值（54．95μg／L）。多元回归分析表明：①儿童生活居住环境会影响儿童的血铅水平。②父母的文化程度和职业以及儿童生活或卫生习惯对儿童血铅有影响。③饮食以及营养状况也与儿童血铅水平有关。结论中国儿童血铅水平已有所下降，但仍高于发达国家儿童血铅水平，需要引起政府和全社会的重视。     

Binational study of pediatric blood lead levels along the United States/Mexico border

To evaluate lead exposure among children living in border communities, the states of Arizona and New Mexico in the United States (US), and the states of Sonora and Chihuahua in Mexico collaboratively requested that the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provide technical assistance to document pediatric blood lead levels (BLLs) in children living along this part of the US/Mexico border. Two studies were conducted to evaluate BLLs of children aged 1-6 years. In 1998, 1210 children were tested in the Arizona/Sonora study; in 1999, 874 children were tested in New Mexico/Chihuahua. Overall geometric mean BLL was 32.5 microg/l (95% Confidence Interval 31.5-33.5) with BLLs ranging from below limit of detection to 320.0 microg/l. Mean BLLs were higher among children living on the Mexican side of the border (43.2 microg/l) compared to those on the US side (22.3 microg/l). Mean BLLs ranged from 14.9 to 31.2 microg/l at the US sites and from 26.9 to 55.2 microg/l at the Mexican sites. This study used a convenience sample and cannot be considered representative of the general population. Nonetheless, the range of mean BLLs among the sites and especially the higher mean BLLs among children living in the border communities in Mexico suggests different exposures to lead and warrants further attention.     

Blood lead levels and risk factors for lead poisoning in children and caregivers in Chuuk State, Micronesia

Lead poisoning is a preventable environmental disease. Children and developing fetuses are especially vulnerable; even low blood lead levels (BLLs) are linked with learning and behavioral problems. We assessed children's and their caregivers' BLLs and risk factors for lead exposure in Chuuk State, Federated States of Micronesia. Children aged 2-6 years were randomly selected within 20 randomly selected villages. Children and caregivers provided venous blood, and caregivers offered information about possible risk factors for lead exposure. Mean BLLs were 39 microg/l for children and 16 microg/l for caregivers. Children with BLLs of > or = 100 microg/l (elevated) were 22.9 (95% CI: 4.5-116.0) times more likely to have a caregiver with an elevated BLL, 6.2 (95% CI: 1.4-27.3) times more likely to live on an outer island, and 3.4 (95% CI: 1.7-6.9) times more likely to have a family member who made lead fishing weights than did other children even after controlling for age and sex. For children, 61% of elevated BLLs could be attributed to making fishing weights. Caregivers with elevated BLLs were 5.9 (95% CI: 1.5-23.7) times more likely to live in a household that melted batteries than other caregivers even after controlling for age and education. For caregivers, 37% of the elevated BLLs could be attributed to melting batteries. The association of elevated BLLs in children and their caregiver suggests a common environmental exposure. Melting batteries to make fishing sinkers is a preventable source of lead exposure for children and their caregivers in Chuuk. Published by Elsevier GmbH.     

锌原卟啉作为环境铅污染人群筛查指标的可行性研究

目的探讨红细胞锌原卟啉（ZPP）应用于人群接触环境铅污染筛查指标的可行性。方法以紫金县某电池厂附近常住居民为调查对象,采集被调查者静脉血2～3 mL,采用血液锌原卟啉测定仪测定ZPP、石墨炉原子吸收光谱法测定血铅。儿童以血铅含量≥100μg/L、成年人以≥400μg/L为慢性铅中毒判定标准。结果共调查946名居民,其中1～13岁儿童174人、16～87岁成年人772人。儿童血铅含量超标率为14.9%（26/174）,儿童ZPP含量中位数为0.780μmol/L,血铅中位数为47.675μg/L,儿童ZPP含量与血铅含量的相关关系没有统计学意义（P〉0.05）。成人血铅含量超标率为9.5%（73/772）,成人ZPP含量中位数为0.740μmol/L,血铅中位数为69.572μg/L,成人ZPP含量与血铅含量呈弱相关关系（r=0.344,P〈0.05）。儿童血铅高水平组（血铅≥100μg/L）ZPP含量与血铅含量呈较强的相关关系（r=0.530,P〈0.05）,儿童血铅低水平组（血铅〈100μg/L）ZPP含量与血铅含量的相关关系没有统计学意义（P〉0.05）。成人血铅高水平组（血铅≥400μg/L）和低水平组（血铅〈400μg/L）的ZPP含量与血铅含量均具有相关关系（r分别为0.566、0.142,均P〈0.05）。结论成人血铅或儿童血铅水平较高时,ZPP可以作为环境铅污染人群筛查的指标。     

Blood lead and cadmium levels and relevant factors among children from an e-waste recycling town in China

Background

Primitive electronic waste (e-waste) recycling is ongoing in Guiyu, and thus toxic heavy metals may keep on threatening to the health of local children. Some related factors may contribute to the elevation of blood lead levels (BLLs) or blood cadmium levels (BCLs).

Objective

To investigate the children's BLLs and BCLs in Guiyu and Chendian as compare to discuss the effects of primitive e-waste recycling activities on children's health.

Methods

Two hundred and seventy-eight children less than 8 years who lived in Guiyu and Chendian were observed, and their BLLs and BCLs were determined by graphite atomizer absorption spectrophotometer. Questionnaire survey for risk factors was also performed and data were analyzed using spearman correlation analyses and logistic regression analyses.

Results

Children living in Guiyu had significantly higher BLLs and BCLs as compared with those living in Chendian (p<0.01). In Guiyu, 70.8% of children (109/154) had BLLs>10 μg/dL, and 20.1% of children (31/154) had BCLs>2 μg/L, compared with 38.7% of children (48/124) had BLLs>10 μg/dL and 7.3% of children (9/124) had BCLs>2 μg/L in Chendian (p<0.01, respectively). We also observed a significant increasing trend in BLLs with increasing age in Guiyu (p<0.01). Mean height of children in Guiyu was significantly lower than that in Chendian (p<0.01). The risk factors related to children's BLLs and BCLs mainly included father's engagement in the work related to e-waste, children's residence in Guiyu and the amount of time that children played outside near the road everyday.

Conclusions

There are close relationships between the BLLs, BCLs in children and the primitive e-waste recycling activities in Guiyu. Environmental pollution, especially lead pollution, has threatened the health of children living around e-waste recycling site.     

Blood lead levels and risk factors for lead poisoning among children in a Mexican smelting community

The authors evaluated mean blood lead levels (BLLs) and the prevalence of elevated BLLs in children 1-6 yr of age living in Torreón, Mexico, and assessed risk factors for lead exposure in these children. The study involved a simple random sample of households in the area around a local smelter, as well as a 2-stage cluster sample of neighborhoods and households in the remainder of Torreón. The geometric mean BLL of children in this study (N = 367) was 6.0 microg/dl (95% confidence interval [CI] = 5.2, 6.8) (0.29 microM/l [95% CI = 0.25, 0.33]). Twenty percent of the children had BLLs > or = 10 microg/dl (0.48 microM/l), and 5% had BLLs > or = 20 microg/dl (0.97 microM/l). In multivariate analyses, distance from the smelter, amount of income, and education level of the primary caregiver predicted BLLs. In the environmental risk factor subsample (n = 124), dust and soil lead levels were associated with BLLs and distance from the smelter. BLLs in this study were moderately high, but the levels were lower than those in other smelting communities prior to remediation.     

铅污染对儿童健康影响的研究

目的:研究铅污染环境对造成儿童健康影响的情况。方法:取被检查儿童的末稍血40μl于已准备好的稀释液中,马上盖上瓶盖、搅拌混匀,使用无火焰原子吸收光谱法检测血铅值,铅≥100血μg/L(1μg/L=0.004 83 mol/L)者为铅中毒。结果:被检查的426例儿童中,测得血铅最大值为257.2μg/L,最小为15.6μg/L,平均值为79.47μg/L,血铅≥100μg/L的儿童有74例,占17.4%(74?426)。结论:环境铅污染已严重影响儿童的健康和发育,应加强城乡铅含量检测,防止铅污染环境而影响儿童健康。     

Blood lead survey of children, pregnant women, professional drivers, street workers, and office workers in Trujillo, Peru

In this pilot study, conducted in summer 2002, the authors measured blood lead levels (BLLs) for 118 subjects in the city of Trujillo, Peru, where leaded gasoline is in the process of being phased out. Subjects included bus drivers, combi (minivan) drivers, street vendors, newspaper vendors, traffic police, taxi drivers, gas station attendants, children living both near and distant from gas stations, pregnant women, and office workers (controls). The highest BLLs were 9.2 microg/dl and 9.3 microg/dl from a child who lived near a gas station and from a traffic policeman, respectively; however, all BLLs were below the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's advisory level of concern (10 microg/dl). Office workers (n = 8) and pregnant women (n = 36) had significantly lower BLLs (geometric mean +/- standard deviation = 2.1 +/- 0.7 microg/dl, p < 0.022; and 2.5 +/- 1.1 microg/dl, p < 0.008, respectively) than total traffic-exposed workers (n = 48; 3.2 +/- 1.8 microg/dl). BLLs of children living near gas stations (n = 17; 3.7 +/- 2.2 microg/dl) were marginally higher (p = 0.07) than for children not living near gas stations (n = 9; 2.9 +/- 1.1 microg/dl). The study was limited by small sample size and the fact that the data were based on a convenience sample not fully representative of the cohorts studied. Nevertheless, the authors' findings suggest that leaded gasoline use in Trujillo continues to affect BLLs in traffic-exposed populations.     

Blood lead levels--United States, 1999-2002

Adverse health effects caused by lead exposure include intellectual and behavioral deficits in children and hypertension and kidney disease in adults. Exposure to lead is an important public health problem, particularly for young children. Eliminating blood lead levels (BLLs) >/=10 microg/dL in children is one of the national health objectives for 2010 (objective no. 8-11). Findings of National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) from the period 1976-1980 to 1991-1994 reveal a steep decline (from 77.8% to 4.4%) in the percentage of children aged 1-5 years with BLLs >/=10 microg/dL. However, BLLs remain higher for certain populations, especially children in minority populations, children from low-income families, and children who live in older homes. This report updates estimates of BLLs in the U.S. population with the latest NHANES data, collected during 1999-2002. The findings indicated that BLLs continued to decrease in all age groups and racial/ethnic populations. During 1999-2002, the overall prevalence of elevated BLLs for the U.S. population aged >/=1 year was 0.7%. BLLs in non-Hispanic black children remained higher than in non-Hispanic white or Mexican-American children, although the proportion of BLLs >/=10 microg/dL in this population decreased (72%) since 1991-1994. Approximately 310,000 children aged 1-5 years remained at risk for exposure to harmful lead levels. Public health agencies should continue efforts to eliminate or control sources of lead, screen persons at highest risk for exposure, and provide timely medical and environmental interventions for those identified with elevated BLLs.     

Geographic analysis of blood lead levels in New York State children born 1994-1997

We examined the geographic distribution of the blood lead levels (BLLs) of 677,112 children born between 1994 and 1997 in New York State and screened before 2 years of age. Five percent of the children screened had BLLs higher than the current Centers for Disease Control and Prevention action level of 10 microg/dL. Rates were higher in upstate cities than in the New York City area. We modeled the relationship between BLLs and housing and socioeconomic characteristics at the ZIP code level. Older housing stock, a lower proportion of high school graduates, and a higher percentage of births to African-American mothers were the community characteristics most associated with elevated BLLs. Although the prevalence of children with elevated BLLs declined 44% between those born in 1994 and those born in 1997, the rate of improvement may be slowing down. Lead remains an environmental health problem in inner-city neighborhoods, particularly in upstate New York. We identified areas having a high prevalence of children with elevated BLLs. These communities can be targeted for educational and remediation programs. The model locates areas with a higher or lower prevalence of elevated BLLs than expected. These communities can be studied further at the individual level to better characterize the factors that contribute to these differences.     

Elevated blood lead levels of children in Guiyu, an electronic waste recycling town in China

BACKGROUND: Electronic waste (e-waste) recycling has remained primitive in Guiyu, China, and thus may contribute to the elevation of blood lead levels (BLLs) in children living in the local environment. OBJECTIVES: We compared the BLLs in children living in the e-waste recycling town of Guiyu with those living in the neighboring town of Chendian. METHODS: We observed the processing of e-waste recycling in Guiyu and studied BLLs in a cluster sample of 226 children < 6 years of age who lived in Guiyu and Chendian. BLLs were determined with atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Hemoglobin (Hgb) and physical indexes (height and weight, head and chest circumferences) were also measured. RESULTS: BLLs in 165 children of Guiyu ranged from 4.40 to 32.67 microg/dL with a mean of 15.3 microg/dL, whereas BLLs in 61 children of Chendian were from 4.09 to 23.10 microg/dL with a mean of 9.94 microg/dL. Statistical analyses showed that children living in Guiyu had significantly higher BLLs compared with those living in Chendian (p < 0.01). Of children in Guiyu, 81.8% (135 of 165) had BLLs > 10 microg/dL, compared with 37.7% of children (23 of 61) in Chendian (p < 0.01). In addition, we observed a significant increasing trend in BLLs with increasing age in Guiyu (p < 0.01). It appeared that there was correlation between the BLLs in children and numbers of e-waste workshops. However, no significant difference in Hgb level or physical indexes was found between the two towns. CONCLUSIONS: The primitive e-waste recycling activities may contribute to the elevated BLLs in children living in Guiyu.     

Blood lead levels of primary-school children in Penghu County,Taiwan: distribution and influencing factors

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to investigate the blood lead levels (BLLs) of primary-school children aged 7 to 12 in Penghu island and to determine the factors affecting their BLLs. METHODS: A total of 1,885 participants were recruited and BLLs were measured with a flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometer. A questionnaire was used to collect personal information. RESULTS: The results indicated that the mean BLL of primary-school children in Penghu was 6.0+/-2.4 microg/dl (1.0 approximately 29.3 microg/dl). The mean BLL of schoolboys ( n=1,046) was 6.3+/-2.6 microg/dl, with a maximum of 29.3 microg/dl, while the mean BLL of schoolgirls ( n=839) was 5.7+/-2.2 microg/dl, with a maximum of 23.4 microg/dl. Risk-factor analysis showed that personal characteristics (i.e., gender, frequency of milk consumption, grade levels) and geographic factors (i.e., levels of urbanization) significantly influence the BLLs. However, there was no significant impact on BLLs from drinking water, residential distance from a major road, and living close to lead-emitting sources. CONCLUSIONS: Geographical factors were highly associated with BLLs. The BLLs of the primary-school children living in the main Penghu island were lower than those in the other small islands.     

幼儿园环境中铅含量对儿童血铅值的影响

目的探讨幼儿园环境是否对儿童铅暴露产生影响。方法采集、测定幼儿园环境样品中铅含量,同时采集、测定儿童的手尘铅和血铅浓度,分析环境铅和血铅的相关关系。铅测定方法为原子吸收法。结果19所幼儿园室内地面尘、脱落漆皮。室内降尘、室外地面尘、土壤和自来水铅含量的几何均数分别为86．5μg/m2、235.5μg/g、445．9μg/g、172．4μg/m2、70．1μg/g及12.5μg／L。儿童双手尘铅的平均值为3．4μg。相关分析结果提示血铅与室外地面尘铅、儿童手尘铅呈正相关。多因素分析显示手尘铅被引入血铅的回归方程,而且其标准化回归系数最大,达0.3842,其偏回归系数为0．2018。结论幼儿园的环境卫生状况直接影响着儿童铅的摄入水平。因此有必要对儿童进行健康教育,使其养成勤洗手的卫生习惯,克服吮吸手指的不良行为。     

Blood lead levels among children of lead-exposed workers: A meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: To further assess the utility of targeted blood lead screening for children from households with members having occupational lead exposures, we conducted a meta-analysis of all available reports of take-home lead exposures. Our objective was to estimate the blood lead levels among U.S. children (ages 1-5) from households with lead-exposed workers. METHODS: Reports considered for inclusion were cited in Medline, Toxline, Excerpta Medica, and Bio-Med plus all unpublished reports available at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health through 1994. The a priori criteria for inclusion of U.S. reports required their having data on: (1) venous blood lead levels for children, (2) children's ages, (3) data for at least five children, (4) workers' occupations, (5) workers' blood lead levels, and (6) data collection methods. RESULTS: Based on a meta-analysis of 10 reports from 1987 through 1994, the children (n=139) of lead-exposed workers (n=222) had a geometric mean blood lead level of 9.3 microg/dL compared to a U.S. population geometric mean of 3.6 microg/dL (P=0.0006). Also in this group, 52% of the children had blood lead levels (BLLs) >/= 10 microg/dL compared to 8.9% in the U.S. (P=.0010), and 21% of the children had BLLs >/= 20 microg/dL compared to 1.1% in the U.S. (P=. 0258). CONCLUSIONS: We estimate, based on 1981-83 survey data, that there are about 48,000 families with children under six living with household members occupationally exposed to lead. If the findings from this meta-analysis (admittedly limited by small numbers) are generalizable, about half of the young children in these families may have BLLs >/= 10 microg/dL. Data were too sparse to determine if children of workers with elevated blood leads were at greater risk than children whose parents were only known to be lead exposed. Our findings support the position that children of lead-exposed workers should be targeted for blood lead screening. Am. J. Ind. Med. 36:475-481, 1999. Published 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.