Cost-effectiveness of cervical cancer screening and preventative cryotherapy at an HIV treatment clinic in Kenya

Objective

This study evaluated the potential cost-effectiveness of cervical cancer screening in HIV treatment clinics in Nairobi, Kenya.

Methods

A Markov model was used to project health outcomes and costs of cervical cancer screening and cryotherapy at an HIV clinic in Kenya using cryotherapy without screening, visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA), Papanicolaou smear (Pap), and testing for human papillomavirus (HPV). Direct and indirect medical and non-medical costs were examined from societal and clinic perspectives.

Results

Costs of cryotherapy, VIA, Pap, and HPV for women with CD4 200–500 cells/mL were $99, $196, $219, and $223 from a societal perspective and $19, $94, $124, and $113 from a clinic perspective, with 17.3, 17.1, 17.1, and 17.1 years of life expectancy, respectively. Women at higher CD4 counts (>500 cells/mL) given cryotherapy VIA, Pap, and HPV resulted in better life expectancies (19.9+ years) and lower cost (societal: $49, $99, $115, and $102; clinic: $13, $51, $71, and $56). VIA was less expensive than HPV unless HPV screening could be reduced to a single visit.

Conclusions

Preventative cryotherapy was the least expensive strategy and resulted in highest projected life expectancy, while VIA was most cost-effective unless HPV could be reduced to a single visit.

     

Visual inspection with acetic acid for cervical cancer screening outside of low-resource settings.

OBJECTIVES: To assess visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) as a screening tool for use in a well-equipped health center in Peru, to evaluate VIA as an alternative or adjunct to the Papanicolaou (Pap) smear, and to determine if VIA can play a role in settings other than low-resource ones. METHODS: This was a prospective study of 1 921 asymptomatic women living in Lima, Peru, carried out in 1999 and 2000. The study was performed at a cancer center equipped with the latest-generation technology and highly trained oncologists. The women underwent a complete clinical evaluation, including a Pap smear and VIA. Participants with any positive test were referred for colposcopy and biopsy. RESULTS: More women tested positive by VIA than on the Pap smear (6.9% vs. 4.2%; P = 0.0001). There were 35 women with histologic cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 1 (CIN 1); of these, 15 were detected by Pap and 20 by VIA (P = 0.4). A diagnosis of CIN 2 or 3 (CIN 2-3) was confirmed in a total of 13 cases; Pap detected 5 of the cases and VIA 11 of the cases (P = 0.06). The positive predictive value for detection of CIN 2+ was 8.3% for VIA and 6.3% for Pap (P = 0.5). Most importantly, while only 2.3% of patients with a positive VIA were lost to follow-up before colposcopy, that was true for 26.3% of the women with a positive Pap smear (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: VIA is useful for detection of precursor lesions of cervical cancer not only in low-resource settings but also in well-equipped health centers and cancer centers. In these non-low-resource settings, VIA has a positive predictive value comparable to the conventional Pap smear, but it is more likely to achieve earlier diagnosis, follow-up, and treatment than cytology-based screening.     

Cervical cancer screening following prophylactic human papillomavirus vaccination

The recognition that infection with certain human papillomavirus (HPV) types is a necessary cause of cervical cancer has opened new fronts for the prevention of this disease. Primary prevention is now possible via immunization with highly efficacious HPV vaccines and secondary prevention has gained impetus with the advent of sensitive HPV DNA testing to improve traditional Pap cytology screening programs. Although universal vaccination of teenagers and young women is a desirable policy cost remains a key obstacle. To achieve cost-effective reductions in the burden of cervical cancer prevention initiatives must consider screening and immunization as integrated and organized approaches that take advantage of HPV testing as primary screening test followed by triage with Pap cytology. This strategy has the added benefit of providing epidemiological surveillance of vaccinated populations.     

Cancer of the Uterine Cervix

HEALTH ISSUE: Cervical cancer is one of the most common malignant diseases of women; it is diagnosed in almost half a million women every year and half as many die from it annually. In Canada and other industrialized countries, its incidence has decreased due to cytology screening. However, invasive cases still occur, particularly among immigrant groups and native Canadian women. Although incidence of squamous cell carcinomas has decreased, the proportion of adenocarcinomas has increased because Pap cytology is ineffective to detect these lesions. KEY FINDINGS: In Canada, cervical cancer will cause an estimated 11,000 person-years of life lost. In most Canadian provinces, early detection is dependent on opportunistic screening. Primary prevention can be achieved through health education (sexual behavior modification) and vaccination to prevent infection from Human Papillomavirus (HPV). The initial results from vaccination trials are encouraging but wide scale use is more than a decade away. DATA GAPS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: Most cases of cervical cancer occur because the Pap smear was either false negative, was not done or not done often enough. Appropriate recommendations and guidelines exist on implementation of cytology-based programs. However, most Canadian women do not have access to organized screening. Further research is needed to 1) evaluate automated cytology systems; 2) define appropriate management of precursor lesions and 3) deliver definitive evidence of HPV testing efficacy in long-term follow-up studies with invasive cancer as an outcome and 4) provide Canadian data to justify augmenting or modifying current programs to use HPV testing in secondary triage of equivocal Pap smears.     

Epidemiology and burden of HPV infection and related diseases: implications for prevention strategies

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a necessary, although not sufficient cause of cervical cancer. Globally, HPV infection accounts for an estimated 530,000 cervical cancer cases (~270,000 deaths) annually, with the majority (86% of cases, 88% of deaths) occurring in developing countries. Approximately 90% of anal cancers and a smaller subset (<50%) of other cancers (oropharyngeal, penile, vaginal, vulvar) are also attributed to HPV. In total, HPV accounts for 5.2% of the worldwide cancer burden. HPVs 16 and 18 are responsible for 70% of cervical cancer cases and, especially HPV 16, for a large proportion of other cancers. Prophylactic vaccination targeting these genotypes is therefore expected to have a major impact on the burden of cervical cancer as well as that of other HPV-related cancers. Over the past 50 years, organized or opportunistic screening with Papanicolaou (Pap) cytology has led to major reductions in cervical cancer in most developed countries. However, due to lack of resources or inadequate infrastructure, many countries have failed to reduce cervical cancer mortality through screening. HPV DNA testing recently emerged as a likely candidate to replace Pap cytology for primary screening. It is less prone to human error and more sensitive than Pap in detecting high-grade cervical lesions. For countries with national vaccination programs, HPV testing may also serve as a low cost strategy to monitor long term vaccine efficacy. Introduction of well organized vaccination and screening programs should be a priority for all countries. Increased support from donors is needed to support this cause.     

新疆维吾尔族宫颈癌与认识程度的关系

目的:探讨维吾尔族妇女宫颈癌与认识程度的关系,为新疆宫颈癌防治工作提供健康教育干预基础。方法:对400例新疆维吾尔族宫颈癌妇女进行对宫颈癌知识的问卷调查后,对她们的资料进行分析。结果:400例患者中知道宫颈癌的患者为20例,占5.0%,95.0%的患者不知道什么是宫颈癌,知道宫颈涂片的意义者10例,仅占2.5%,绝大多数患者不知道宫颈涂片的意义(占97.5%),认为定期做宫颈涂片重要者为7.0%,对做涂片重要性的态度一般者占11.0%,认为定期做宫颈涂片不重要者占29.3%,认为定期做宫颈涂片没有必要者占52.7%,做过宫颈涂片者(包括1年前及其以上)占14.0%,而从来未做过涂片的患者为344例,占86.0%,所有的患者不知道什么是人类乳头状瘤病毒(HPV)及其与宫颈癌的关系。结论:新疆维吾尔族宫颈癌患者受教育的程度普遍较低,对宫颈癌的相关知识缺乏,对定期做宫颈涂片持被动的态度,绝大部分患者一生中未做过涂片,这些因素可能导致维吾尔族宫颈癌发病率居高不下,因此新疆宫颈癌防治工作中进行有关宫颈癌健康教育干预极为迫切。     

Maternal Factors and Sexual Orientation-Related Disparities in Cervical Cancer Prevention

ObjectivesOur objective was to explore how mothers’ attitudes and relationships with their daughters may impact the cervical cancer prevention behaviors of daughters with diverse sexual orientations.MethodsWe examined 8,143 mother–daughter dyads from the Nurses' Health Study 2 and Growing Up Today Study. During the daughter's adolescence, each mother reported her beliefs about the importance of regular Pap testing for her daughter, the frequency of communication with her daughter about Pap testing, her beliefs about Pap testing and human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines, and her acceptance of sexual minorities (e.g., bisexuals, lesbians). Mothers and daughters separately reported relationship satisfaction. Log-binomial models were used to examine the longitudinal association between maternal factors and daughter's receipt of a Pap test and HPV vaccination.ResultsNearly all maternal factors predicted the daughter's likelihood to have a Pap test and HPV vaccination. Higher levels of acceptance for sexual minorities and better relationship quality were also positively associated with these cervical cancer prevention behaviors. Yet, after adjusting for the maternal factors, there was little attenuation of the existing sexual orientation-related disparities in Pap tests or HPV vaccination.ConclusionsMothers can play an important role in their daughters' cervical cancer prevention behaviors through novel processes like being more accepting of sexual minorities and having a good relationship quality. However, in this study, maternal factors did not explain much of the sexual orientation-related disparities in cervical cancer prevention. Efforts to ensure a mother is accepting of sexual minorities and has a good relationship quality with her daughter may improve that daughter's reproductive health.     

Pap smear, hybrid capture II, and visual inspection in screening for uterine cervical lesions

The objective of this study was to evaluate alterations in Pap smear, hybrid capture II (HCII), and visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) in 684 women treated at a primary health care unit. The performance and agreement of the exams were evaluated. The study also described social, demographic, and reproductive factors and their association with uterine cervical lesions. Women had specimens taken for Pap smear, HCII, and VIA. When at least one of the tests was positive, colposcopy was performed and targeted biopsies were taken from any suspicious lesions. Performance of tests was evaluated. Women's distribution in relation to social, demographic, and reproductive factors and histological diagnosis was evaluated using the odds ratio. Among 198 women with at least one positive screening test, only 21 showed histological disease. Sensitivities of the tests were similar. VIA and Pap smear presented higher specificity than HCII. Only absence of a previous Pap smear was associated with the presence of histological disease. Pap smear performed better than VIA and HC II. Absence of previous cytology was associated with histological disease.     

HPV and cervical cancer testing and prevention: knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes among Hispanic women

Cervical cancer is a preventable disease resulting from infection with high-risk types of sexually transmitted human papillomaviruses (HPVs). Public knowledge of HPVs and their link to cervical cancer is limited. Participation in cervical cancer prevention programs, including Pap and HPV screening and HPV vaccine acceptance, is crucial for limiting the incidence of cervical cancer. Hispanic women suffer the highest cervical cancer incidence rates in the United States. In this study, we conducted community-based focus groups with Hispanic women to explore knowledge and attitudes relating to cervical cancer, HPV, HPV testing, and HPV vaccination. Study findings suggest a need to increase public health literacy in relation to HPV, the link between HPV and cervical cancer, and HPV primary and secondary prevention options. Health care providers should be prepared to share information with patients that supports and promotes informed decision making about HPV testing and vaccines and their complementary roles in cervical cancer screening and prevention.     

Screening for cervical cancer in Jamaica

Invasive cervical cancer is a leading cause of death in Jamaica despite the availability of Pap smear screening. 90% of women who die from cervical cancer have never been screened. The effectiveness of Pap smear screening depends on women's knowledge of and attitudes toward screening, the availability of this service, the adequacy of laboratory facilities to process the smears, staffing of clinics and laboratories, quality control, a system of recall of women with positive smears, and economic factors. This article reviews the impact of each of these factors in the Jamaican context. Most women have heard of the Pap smear but believe its purpose is to detect rather than prevent cervical cancer. Screening rates are low among poor, uneducated women. As a result of staff shortages in government laboratories, there is a long delay before Pap smear results are returned. The problem of cervical cancer is severe enough in Jamaica to justify the reallocation of funds from less critical areas.     

Visual Inspection with Acetic Acid (VIA) Screening Program: 7 Years Experience in Early Detection of Cervical Cancer and Pre-Cancers in Rural South India

Cervical cancer continues to be a major public health problem in India in the absence of wide spread organised cervical screening programs. Visual inspection of the cervix with acetic acid (VIA) is an effective, inexpensive screening test that can be combined with simple treatment procedures for early cervical lesions, provided by trained health workers. We report 7 years experience in early detection of cervical cancer and pre-cancers using the VIA test in a community-based program in rural Andhra Pradesh, India where there are no existing organised cervical screening programs.

Materials and Methods:

Eligible women aged between 26 and 60 were opportunistically screened by trained health wor kers using the VIA test. Women who tested positive were further evaluated and those with cervical lesions were treated either by cryotherapy in the screening clinic or referred to a higher center.

Results:

A total of 18,869 women were screened by a single round of VIA testing with a positive rate of 10.75%. Biopsy proven high-grade squamous intraepithelials (HSILs) were 90 (0.48%) and low-grade squamous intraepithelials (LSILs) were 43 (0.28%). The overall prevalence of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) 2+ lesion rate is 1.05%. A total of 312 (1.65%) cryotherapies were done and 49 women underwent hysterectomy.

Conclusions:

VIA by trained female health workers is a safe, acceptable, and effective test that can save lives from cervical cancer even in remote areas with few resources. These results have important implications for efficient service delivery in cervical screening programs in low-resourced settings.     

Knowledge, attitude and practice in primary and secondary cervical cancer prevention among young adult Italian women

In Italy since 2007 vaccination against human papillomavirus (HPV) is offered to 11-year-old females, whereas vaccination for older age groups is still a matter of debate. To assess Italian young women's knowledge, attitudes and practice regarding primary and secondary cervical cancer prevention a cross-sectional study among young women aged 18-26 years was conducted in 2008. The survey collected information on in-depth awareness and knowledge regarding Pap testing, HPV infection, HPV vaccine and cervical cancer. The response rate was 57.7% with a wide range of variability (34-84%) amongst local health units. Among 667 women who participated in the survey poor awareness and various misconceptions regarding HPV and cervical cancer prevention were detected. Overall women were found to be more knowledgeable about Pap smears and cervical cancer than about HPV infection and the HPV vaccine. Respondents pointed to their healthcare providers as their most trusted source for medical information. Understanding women's knowledge on cervical cancer prevention, as well as related factors is important in helping to achieve and maintain adherence to cervical cancer preventive strategies. Moreover in order to minimize cervical cancer risk by improving women's adherence to preventive strategies, appropriate and adequate information dissemination, and guidance from health professionals appear to be crucial elements.     

Knowledge about Cervical Cancer Risk Factors,Traditional Health Beliefs,and Pap Testing Among Vietnamese American Women

Introduction: The objective of this paper was to examine knowledge about cervical cancer risk factors and traditional health beliefs in relation to Papanicolaou (Pap) testing among Vietnamese women. Methods: A population-based survey was conducted in Seattle (n<352, response rate=82%) during 2002. Results: The proportions of women who knew that older age, not getting regular Pap tests, and Vietnamese ethnicity are associated with an elevated cervical cancer risk were only 53%, 62%, and 23%, respectively. The majority (87%) incorrectly believed poor women’s hygiene is a risk factor for cervical cancer. Approximately two-thirds (68%) of the women had received a Pap test during the preceding three years. Knowing that lack of Pap testing increases the risk of cervical cancer was strongly associated (p<0.001) with recent Pap smear receipt. Conclusion: Our results confirm that Vietnamese women have lower levels of cervical cancer screening than non-Latina white women. Intervention programs addressing Pap testing in Vietnamese communities should recognize women’s traditional beliefs while encouraging them to adopt biomedical preventive measures into their daily lives.     

VIA在女职工体检中的应用

[目的]评价在女职工体检中采用醋酸肉眼观察法(VIA)的筛查宫颈病变的效果。[方法]对737位女职工进行妇科检查,同时采用VIA及巴氏涂片法进行宫颈病变的筛查,评价两种方法的宫颈病变检出率。[结果]参检率为75.20%(737/980),参检妇女关于癌症的知晓率为62.5%;宫颈癌的筛查方法的知晓率为42.5%,其中宫颈细胞学检查知晓率为36.5%;人乳头瘤病毒知晓率为19%;CINII级以上病变的检出率VIA法为0.54%(4/737);巴氏涂片法为0,两种检查方法比较差异有统计学意义(P﹤0.05)。[结论]大多数妇女对宫颈癌症的防治知识了解甚少,需加强知识的普及;应用VIA联合巴氏涂片法进行宫颈癌的初筛可进一步提高癌前病变的检出率。     

Planning of a screening programme for cervical cancer in liguria and evaluation of the attitude of the female population towards cancer detection

In 1990 an investigation aimed at evaluating the possibility of organizing a regional screening programme for the early detection of cervical cancer was carried out in Liguria. Information on resources available for early detection of cervical cancer was obtained from 12 of 20 Public Health Units; a screening programme was feasible in 8 of them. The number of Pap tests examined was evaluted for 6 of 20 cytology laboratories. Only one laboratory examined more than 20,000 Pap tests in 1989 and, according to the international guidelines, can be a referring centre for screening. However, no information was available concerning inter- and intralaboratory quality control programmes. In the same period a population-based survey was carried out using a self-administered questionnaire in order to evaluate the attitudes of women towards cervical cancer prevention. A total of 1,454 of 4,197 women (35%) participated in the study. Younger, well educated women employed in non non-manual work were more likely to participate in the study. About 65% of the respondents had satisfactory practices with regards to the Pap test, suggesting a strong self-selection that probably resulted in a sample of women more health-conscious than the general population. In conclusion, our results suggest that major interventions should be carried out in the Public Health Units to direct resources to the needs of the population. In addition, new educational methods should be adopted to reach selected population groups to encourage them to have a Pap test performed on a regular basis.     

Human papillomavirus-related content in state and tribal comprehensive cancer control plans

Oncogenic types of the human papillomavirus (HPV) are firmly established as etiological agents for most premalignant and malignant epithelial lesions of the cervical mucosa. Genital infection with HPV is the most common sexually transmitted infection (STI) in the United States. Although most women infected with the virus become HPV negative within 2 years, women with persistent high-risk HPV infections are at greatest risk for developing cervical cancer. Since the development of the Papanicolau (Pap) test more than 60 years ago to screen for cervical cancer, technological advances have occurred in cervical cytology screening and HPV vaccine research. For example, in 2001, high-risk HPV DNA testing was recommended for the management of women whose Pap smears (collected by a liquid-based method) reveal atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance. In 2006, the Food and Drug Administration licensed a quadrivalent HPV vaccine for females aged 9-26 years to prevent cervical cancer, precancerous lesions, and genital warts associated with HPV types in the vaccine. New and emerging technologies in cancer diagnosis, management, and prevention are often addressed in comprehensive cancer control (CCC) plans developed by states, tribes, and territories. CCC is a collaborative process through which a community and its partners pool resources to reduce the burden of cancer. To assess whether CCC plans include HPV-related content, particularly regarding cervical cancer screening and prevention, we reviewed the most current plans available between October 2006 and January 2007 on an interactive Internet site for CCC programs (n = 53). This paper describes the contexts in which HPV-related content occurs in the plans.     

宫颈癌筛查方法及其筛查起始年龄的卫生经济学评价

目的 <\b>对宫颈癌多种筛查方案终生筛查一次的效果进行卫生经济学评价,并探讨最具有成本效果的筛查起始年龄.方法 <\b>在农村地区选择醋酸/碘染色肉眼观察检查(VIA/VILI)、传统巴氏细胞学检测(Pap Smear)和简易人乳头瘤病毒(HPV) DNA检测(careHPV)3种筛查方法,城市地区选择PAP Smear、液基细胞学检测(LBC)、careHPV、HPV DNA检测(HC2)和LBC联合HC2检测(LBC+HC2)5种筛查方法.运用Markov模型,预测在不同筛查起始年龄终生筛查一次的远期流行病学和卫生经济学效果.结果 <\b>在农村和城市地区,各筛查方案队列人群20年后挽救的累积生命年分别为277.97年/10万人至2727.53年/10万人和134.02年/10万人至1446.84年/10万人;与对照组相比,各筛查方案每挽救一个生命年的成本分别在1520.99 ～ 2453.74元和3847.35～44 570.35元之间;增量成本效果分析显示,农村地区的优势方案依次为careHPV 40岁和careHPV 30岁起始筛查方案,城市地区的优势方案依次为careHPV 40岁、careHPV 30岁、HC2 30岁和LBC+HC2 30岁起始筛查方案.结论 <\b>如妇女终生接受一次筛查,农村和城市地区所有评价方案均具有成本效果,careHPV 40岁起始筛查是中国农村和城市地区最具有成本效果的筛查方案.     

Pap Testing, Awareness, and Acceptability of a Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccine Among Chinese American Women

Little is known about the knowledge and opinions of human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine among Chinese immigrants, nor the impact of framing HPV as a sexually transmitted infection in this population. A cross-sectional survey was conducted focusing on knowledge and experience with HPV, HPV vaccine, cervical cancer and Pap testing, and attitudes toward HPV vaccine in response to different message frames. Chinese American women were recruited in a community setting (n?=?162). Only 19?% had heard of HPV and 38?% had had a Pap test in the last 3?years. Multivariate logistic regression showed that English proficiency was associated with vaccination acceptance and insurance status was associated with HPV awareness; there was no observed correlation with message framing. Chinese American women with limited English proficiency have low HPV awareness. Community-based, culturally appropriate education about cervical cancer and HPV vaccine should be directed toward limited-English proficient Chinese American women.     

多种检测方法在子宫颈癌及癌前病变筛查中的应用评估

目的评估多种检测方法在子宫颈癌及癌前病变筛查中的应用价值及可行性，为子宫颈癌筛查方案提供依据。方法对子宫颈癌高发区江西省修水县大桥乡妇女进行以人群为基础的研究，对已登记的2499名年龄为30～49岁农村已婚妇女分别做人乳头瘤病毒（HPV）检测、新柏氏薄层液基细胞学（TCT）、醋酸染色后肉眼观察（VIA）、碘染色后肉眼观察（VILI）以及电子阴道镜检查。全部检查方法均以独立、双盲方式进行。对VIA、VILI及电子阴道镜三项检查中任何一项存在子宫颈可疑病变的妇女行子宫颈活检；对以上三项检查均未发现可疑病变，但子宫颈脱落细胞HPV阳性或TCT结果阳性（ASCUS以上级别）的妇女，2周后给予子宫颈活检。观察HPV、TCT、VIA、VILI、电子阴道镜等筛查方法单独使用或联合使用进行子宫颈癌及其癌前病变筛查的敏感度、特异度、阳性预测值、阴性预测值。宫颈组织病理诊断均经国际癌症研究所病理确诊。筛查时将病理诊断为子宫颈上皮内瘤变（CIN）1级（CINl）纳入阴性结果，将CIN2以上（包括CIN2）病变纳入阳性结果。宫颈细胞学按TCT（thinprep cytology test）标准制片，细胞学诊断按照2001年TBS（The Bethesda System）细胞病理分类标准判读诊断。结果2499名受检妇女中，2432名纳入研究（67名妇女因HPV或TCT阳性未行活检故未列入统计），其中HPV阳性妇女387例；TCT阳性妇女153例。宫颈活检病理诊断共检出CIN及子宫颈癌99例，其中CIN237例，CIN359例，宫颈癌3例。HPV、TCT、HPV＋TCT、VIA、VILI、VIA＋VILI、阴道镜检等筛查方法的敏感度分别为96．67％、89．47％、97．98％、56．57％、36．36％、63．64％、39．39％。特异度分别为85．00％、96．91％、86．97％、94．60％、96．23％、92．97％、98．14％。结论HPV＋TCT用于宫颈癌及癌前病变筛查的敏感度高于其他筛查方法。