早期使用前置式踝足矫形器脑卒中偏瘫患者的步行能力和速度

背景：脑损伤和脑卒中存活者有相当部分遗留有足下垂内翻畸形,需要借助于踝足矫形器进行治疗。 目的：探讨早期使用前置式踝足矫形器对脑卒中偏瘫患者步行功能的影响及优势。 方法：回顾分析常熟市第二人民医院2008年6月至2009年10月治疗的54例脑卒中偏瘫患者的临床资料,佩戴前置式踝足矫形器为前置组28例和佩戴后置式踝足矫形器为后置组26例。所有患者进行10 m最大步行速度测试,每天观察两组患者步行功能恢复情况。 结果与结论：所有患者在观察期间,无退出及死亡,前置式踝足矫形器组日常生活能力的Barthel指数评分(60.0±12.9)明显高于后置踝足矫形器组日常生活能力的Barthel指数评分(59.1±10.9),但两组间没有显著差异(P > 0.05),在10 m最大步行速度测试中,前置式踝足矫形器组步行速度(39.6±11.6) m/min较后置踝足矫形器组步行速度(33.0±12.4) m/min明显加快(P < 0.05)。说明前置式踝足矫形器更合适用于脑卒中偏瘫患者改善步行速度。     

穿戴塑料踝足矫形器对下肢肌肉疲劳性的影响

背景：目前尚未见到系统研究踝足矫形器对下肢肌肉影响的文献。 目的：提取正常人穿戴固定踝足矫形器时的下肢肌电信号,分析固定踝足矫形器对下肢肌肉疲劳性的影响。 方法：选择5名健康男性受试者参加试验,每名受试者分别进行3组试验：①第1组,在不穿戴任何矫形器的情况下以自然步态行走。②第2组,受试者穿戴平跟踝足矫形器以自然步态行走(此时矫形器踝部包裹超过踝中心1 cm,记1.0 cm),穿戴同一矫形器但在踝部去掉1.0 cm、踝部塑料边缘刚好通过踝中心时采集(记     0 cm),在踝部再去掉1.0 cm后以自然步态行走(记-1.0 cm)。③第3组,受试者穿戴1.5 cm正常跟高踝足矫形器以自然步态行走,穿戴同一矫形器,但跟高分别改为1.0,2.0 cm后以自然步态行走。行走中采用肌电采集仪检测受试者下肢股二头肌、股直肌、胫骨前肌、腓肠肌的表面肌电信号。 结果与结论：①正常不穿戴任何矫形器时,4块肌肉的肌电信号是最弱的。②对于任何一块肌肉,正常不穿戴矫形器时所对应肌电值比穿戴不同硬度矫形器时所对应的肌电值要小。③对于股二头肌,正常不穿戴矫形器时所对应的积分肌电值与穿戴正常跟高矫形器时所对应的值很接近,同时这两个值要比穿戴不正常跟高矫形器时所对应的积分肌电值小。表明固定塑料踝足矫形器会引起股二头肌、股直肌、胫骨前肌、腓肠肌的疲劳,当固定塑料踝足矫形器的跟高不合适时会进一步增加股二头肌的疲劳程度。中国组织工程研究杂志出版内容重点：生物材料;骨生物材料; 口腔生物材料; 纳米材料; 缓释材料; 材料相容性;组织工程全文链接：     

不同材料矫形器的生物学性能

背景：矫形器通过力的作用以预防、矫正畸形,达到治疗骨骼、关节、肌肉和神经疾患并补偿其功能的效果。 目的：介绍了矫形器的分类,不同材料矫形器的性能及应用效果。 方法：以“矫形器,生物学性能,先天性马蹄内翻足,婴幼儿”为中文关键词,以“orthosis,Congenital Club Foot” 为英文关键词,采用计算机检索中国期刊全文数据库、PubMed数据库(1996-01/2010-12)相关文章。纳入与矫形器材料、以及先天性马蹄内翻足治疗相关内容的文献,排除重复研究或Meta分析类文章,共入选20篇文章进入结果分析。并回顾性分析应用低温热塑板或高温热塑板,根据3点力作用原理设计制作静态足踝矫形器或动态足踝矫形器,结合手法推拿等综合治疗婴幼儿先天性马蹄内翻足96例(106足)临床效果。 结果与结论：文章重点从矫形器的分类、矫形器的材料、矫形器的基本作用及临床验证几方面进行了叙述。目前常用的矫形器材料主要有金属材料(钢材和铝合金)、皮革、橡胶、塑料及各种纤维等。临床验证结果：随访1年优86例(93足);良8例(10足);可2例(3足)。提示选用高温热塑板制作成静态踝足矫形器或动态踝足矫形器治疗婴幼儿先天性马蹄内翻足早期效果满意。     

踝足矫形器材料学特点及其临床应用

目的:用于脑性瘫痪患儿的传统金属踝足矫形器具有制作工序多,制作条件高、制作后不易修整和较笨重等缺点,越来越多的研究者将现代高分子材料用于踝足矫形器的制作。目的:分析几种踝足矫形器的材料学特点,探讨各种材料的踝足矫形器在治疗脑性瘫痪患儿膝反张中的应用情况。方法:作者应用计算机检索CNKI数据库(www.cnki.net/index.htm),在标题和摘要中以"膝反张,脑性瘫痪,踝足矫形器"为检索词进行检索。选择文章内容能及时准确地报道脑性瘫痪患儿应用踝足矫形器矫治的研究进展和运用情况,共纳入19篇文献。结果与结论:踝足矫形器的制作材料包括高分子树脂材料、聚乙烯材料、聚丙烯材料、低温热塑板材料、半成品高分子纤维等。脑性瘫痪患儿佩戴以上材料制作的踝足矫形器可以增强踝关节稳定性,减轻肌张力,提高行走的速度及步幅,改善步态功能。     

踝足矫形器改善偏瘫患者步行能力的荟萃分析

背景:已有研究表明,踝足矫形器能增加来自足部及腿骨皮肤感受器的输入信息反馈,改善踝关节位置觉,促进大脑功能重组。目的:系统评价踝足矫形器对偏瘫患者步行能力的康复效果。方法:应用计算机检索中国生物医学文献数据库、中国知网、万方数据库和维普数据库中,关于踝足矫形器改善偏瘫患者步行能力的随机对照试验,检索时间从建库至2013年6月。对符合标准的随机对照试验进行Meta合并分析。结果与结论:共纳入9个随机对照研究,456例患者。Meta分析结果显示,与常规康复治疗及药物治疗相比,踝足矫形器连续治疗对改善偏瘫患者下肢运动功能、提高生活能力及10 m最大步行速度方面具有一定的优势。因纳入文献数量有限,对其余指标如步速、左右步幅差及平衡功能等仅作了描述性分析,提示踝足矫形器是通过改善异常步态、步行速度、步频、步态周期、空间不对称、踝关节肌痉挛和平衡等,达到改善步行功能的目标。在时间不对称、双支撑相延长和跨步长等指标上无明显改变,不能确认踝足矫形器在这些指标变化中的作用。现有资料显示,踝足矫形器可在一定程度上促进偏瘫患者下肢运动功能的恢复及日常生活活动能力的提高,但仍需更多高质量、大样本、多中心的随机对照试验证实。     

骨盆并髋臼骨折内固定材料的生物相容性

背景：骨盆骨折合并髋臼骨折多由高能量暴力伤所致,常伴严重并发症,往往需要外科内固定治疗。 目的：探讨骨盆骨折合并髋臼骨折内固定治疗以及材料的生物相容性。 方法：以“骨盆骨折,髋臼骨折,内固定,材料;pelvis fracture,acetabulum fracture,internal fixators,materials”为关键词,应用计算机检索2005至2014年万方数据库、清华知网数据库和PubMed数据库,选取有关骨盆骨折合并髋臼骨折内固定治疗以及材料生物相容性研究的文献,同一领域文献选择权威杂志或发表时间为近期的文章,依据纳入排除标准选取29篇文献进行归纳分析。 结果与结论：对于骨盆骨折合并髋臼骨折临床多采用重建钢板或拉力螺钉内固定,常用于内固定的重建钢板材料是钛板,弹性模量接近骨的弹性模量,生物相容性好,可在置入前预先弯曲塑形,使之与骨折部位骨面相匹配。可吸收螺钉具有良好的组织相容性,无毒副反应,避免金属螺钉的电解与腐蚀,在内固定早期保持一定的强度,随着时间的推移骨折逐渐愈合,材料强度也缓慢降低,材料最终降解为水和二氧化碳,治疗效果满意。以三维重建技术定制钢板固定和微创内固定是目前骨折治疗的重大进展,临床应用前景广阔。  中国组织工程研究杂志出版内容重点：生物材料;骨生物材料; 口腔生物材料; 纳米材料; 缓释材料; 材料相容性;组织工程     

不同类型矫形器在脑卒中偏瘫患者应用中的功能效应

背景：根据脑卒中偏瘫患者病情选用合适的矫形器,可以提高脑卒中偏瘫患者运动功能的恢复效果。 目的：通过对不同类型矫形器对矫治脑卒中肢体偏瘫患者运动功能的效果进行评价,以指导临床应用。 方法：通过查阅文献资料,了解矫形器在偏瘫患者中的应用,特别是不同类型矫形器在脑卒中偏瘫患者治疗过程中的应用,以及各种矫形器对偏瘫患者的运动功能恢复的影响和作用。 结果与结论：通过矫形器的辅助治疗能够减轻脑卒中偏瘫肢体的肌张力和肌痉挛,提高运动功能和整体的日常生活能力,起到稳定支持、固定保护、矫正畸形及代偿丧失功能的作用,但由于病例数相对较少,治疗观察时间较短,缺乏长期随访,远期疗效未能进行考证,有必要通过随访进一步验证其长期疗效,同时对选择什么时机脱离矫形器合适,还有待进一步观察和探讨。     

骨科纳米生物材料的研究现状与展望

背景：随着纳米技术不断发展,越来越多的纳米技术已被应用到生物医药领域,为疾病诊断及治疗提供了很大的利益。 目的：综述纳米生物材料的研究现状及其在生物医学上的应用。 方法：由第一作者应用计算机检索中国期刊全文数据库、PubMed数据及万方数据库,2000年1月至2014年10月关于纳米生物材料、纳米生物陶瓷材料的文章,设定中文检索词为“纳米、生物陶瓷”,英文检索词为“nano, bioceramic”。 结果与结论：随着纳米技术的不断研究及开发,一些纳米技术已进入了实际应用阶段,应用纳米技术能够对疾病的发生、发展起防治作用。纳米陶瓷显著提高了材料的强度、韧性和超塑性,克服了生物陶瓷的许多不足,在骨科领域获得重要应用,比如有人工关节、人工骨骼、骨充填材料、骨置换材料、人工椎体等。 中国组织工程研究杂志出版内容重点：生物材料;骨生物材料; 口腔生物材料; 纳米材料; 缓释材料; 材料相容性;组织工程     

运动性关节软骨缺损支架材料的选择及其生物相容性

背景：骨软骨支架是用于承载细胞,供细胞黏附、生长、增殖、分化的载体。 目的：总结运动性关节软骨缺损支架材料的应用进展及其生物替代材料的生物相容性。 方法：以“关节软骨,生物材料,工程软骨,支架材料,生物相容性”为中文关键词,以“ tissue enginneering ,articular cartilage,scaffold material”为英文关键词,采用计算机检索维普数据库、PubMed数据库1993-01/2010-11相关文章。纳入与有关修复关节软骨损伤、生物材料、支架材料、生物相容性等相关的文章。以20篇文献为重点对运动性关节软骨缺损修复用的生物材料的生物相容性进行了讨论。 结果与结论：天然软骨支架材料因其具有细胞识别信号,故生物相容性好,细胞黏附率高,但力学性能较差。有些人工合成材料生物相容性不理想、亲水性差、对细胞吸附不足,人工合成高分子聚合物生物相容性良好。复合支架利用不同生物材料的优点克制材料的局限性制备理想的复合支架,其混合比例、混合技术还有待进一步研究。目前尚无一种材料完全满足组织工程的要,通过材料制备技术的改进或将几种不同材料的复合,材料的性能会不断的提高。     

不同生物材料复合支架对关节软骨缺损的修复评价

背景：不同生物材料制备的复合软骨支架其修复软骨缺损也各具特点。 目的：探讨不同生物材料制备复合支架的组织工程学特性及其修复关节软骨缺损的性能评价。 方法：以“软骨组织工程,生物材料,工程软骨,复合支架”为中文关键词,以“tissue enginneering,articular cartilage,scaffold material”为英文关键词,采用计算机检索中国期刊全文数据库、PubMed数据库(1993-01/2010-11)相关文章。纳入复合支架材料-细胞复合物修复关节软骨损伤等相关的文章,排除重复研究或Meta分析类文章。 结果与结论：复合支架是当前软骨组织工程中应用较多的支架,它是将具有互补特征的生物相容性可降解支架,按一定比例和方式组合,设计出结构与性能优化的复合支架。较单一支架材料具有更好的生物相容性和一定强度的韧性,较好的孔隙和机械强度。复合支架的制备不仅包括同一类生物材料的复合,还包括不同类别生物材料之间的交叉复合。可分为纯天然支架材料、纯人工支架材料以及天然与人工支架材料的复合等3类。复合支架使生物材料具有互补特性,一定程度上满足了理想生物材料支架应具的综合特点,但目前很多研究仍处于实验阶段,还有一些问题有待于解决,如不同材料的复合比例、复合工艺等。     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

The universal muscular chain reaction,muscle spasm,Torsions, ruptures and extravasations. Chameleons of pathology and some manifestations of simple muscular disorders

Most bodily functions require the coordinated actions of complementary and supplementary paired muscle groups. Where this essential muscular cooperation is lacking, hollow organs may burst and others become literally screwed up, giving rise to many similar spastic diseases such as Torticollis, Twisted ovarian cyst, Torsion of the Testis, Volvulus of the intestines, Varicose Veins, Megacolon, Aortamegaly, Scoliosis, Erb's Palsy, Peyronie's Disease, Main-en-Griffe, Undescended Foot (Pes Cavus), Talipes, Strabismus. Spasm is “panenepidemic” and unclassified examples of Torsion Dystonia and Dyskinesia really are as common as debt and taxes.     

Hypo- und Hypermagnesämie aus kardiologischer Sicht

Zusammenfassung Eine Reihe pathologischer Zustände bedingen Magnesiummangel. Zustände mit Hypermagnesämie sind ebenfalls bekannt, doch wesentlich seltener. Für den Kardiologen beachtenswert ist, daß unter Therapie mit bestimmten Diuretica bei Herzinsuffizienz, bei Herzinfarkt, Kardiomyopathie, Digitalisintoxikation und bestimmten Herzrhythmusstörungen Hypomagnesämie beobachtet wurde. Leider kann in der klinischen Routine nur ein extracelluläres Magnesiumdefizit durch Serumbestimmungen gemessen werden; über Magnesiummangel einzelner Organe kann nichts ausgesagt werden. Hinweise für Magnesiummangel geben aber neben der Messung des Serumspiegels Anamnese, klinischer Befund, bestimmte EKG-Veränderungen wie auch evtl. Hypokalämie, ein Zustand, bei dem sich oft — besonders bei Aldosteronismus — parallele Veränderungen zeigten.Tierexperimente deuten darauf hin, daß infarktähnliche Läsionen unter Magnesiummangel entstehen, doch ob Herzinfarkt beim Menschen durch Magnesiummangel ausgelöst werden kann, ist noch ungeklärt. In Leichenherzen zeigte sich im Infarktgebiet neben Calciumakkumulation signifikanter Magnesiumverlust, wobei unklar blieb, ob sich Ursache oder Folge des Infarktes widerspiegelten. Falls ein ursächlicher Zusammenhang besteht, ist er im Myokardstoffwechsel selbst zu suchen, wie bei der Alkoholkardiomyopathie, wo myokardialer Magnesiummangel zumindest als pathogenetischer Teilfaktor anerkannt wird. Andererseits versucht man aber auch Beziehungen zwischen Atherosklerose, Blutgerinnung und Hypomagnesämie herzustellen, in der Meinung, daß Magnesiummangel auch über den coronaren Pathomechanismus des Herzinfarktes wirken könnte. Sicher scheint, daß gewisse EKG-Veränderungen und Herzrhythmusstörungen durch einen irritierten Magnesiumhaushalt bedingt sein können, da sie bei Gabe bzw. Entzug von Magnesium verschwinden. Daß Magnesiummangel die Glykosidtoleranz verringert, wird tierexperimentell bestätigt. Unter Hypomagnesämie bewirkt Acetylstrophanthidin eher und länger Rhythmusstörungen als ohne, außerdem lassen diese sich durch Magnesiumgaben eliminieren. Da in gewissen Fällen spontane und digitalisinduzierte Herzrythmusstörungen durch Magnesiuminjektionen beseitigt wurden, scheint Magnesium als Therapeuticum angebracht. Einsatz verschiedener Magnesiumsalze bei Angina pectoris, degenerativen Herzerkrankungen und Herzinsuffizienz ohne geprüften und offensichtlich gestörten Magnesiumhaushalt ist fragwürdig, weil keine eindeutigen klinischen Erfolgsbeweise vorliegen. Immerhin mag es aber larvierte, durch Serumbestimmungen nicht erfaßbare Mangelzustände geben. Allgemein erscheint es aus kardiologischer Sicht ratsam, den Magnesiumhaushalt zu überwachen und in entsprechenden Fällen auszugleichen, um möglichen Myokardläsionen oder fatalen Herzrhythmusstörungen entgegenzuwirken.     

Environmental risk factors and their role in the management of atopic dermatitis

Introduction: The etiology of atopic dermatitis (AD) is multifactorial with interaction between genetics, immune and environmental factors.

Areas covered: We review the role of prenatal exposures, irritants and pruritogens, pathogens, climate factors, including temperature, humidity, ultraviolet radiation, outdoor and indoor air pollutants, tobacco smoke exposure, water hardness, urban vs. rural living, diet, breastfeeding, probiotics and prebiotics on AD.

Expert commentary: The increased global prevalence of AD cannot be attributed to genetics alone, suggesting that evolving environmental exposures may trigger and/or flare disease in predisposed individuals. There is a complex interplay between different environmental factors, including individual use of personal care products and exposure to climate, pollution, food and other exogenous factors. Understanding these complex risk factors is crucial to developing targeted interventions to prevent the disease in millions. Moreover, patients require counseling on optimal regimens for minimization of exposure to irritants and pruritogens and other harmful exposures.     

HLA genes in Amerindians from Mexico San Vicente Tancuayalab Teenek/Huastecos

Huastecos or Teenek Amerindians are presently living at North East Mexico (San Luis Potosi State). They have probably one of the most ancient culture of Mexico and Central America together with Mayas and Olmec groups with which also show close relationships. Proximity to Atlantic Ocean/Mexican Gulf originated that Spaniards had very early contact with them at about 1519 CE or before. In the present paper we have aimed to study HLA gene profile which may be useful for HLA and disease epidemiology and transplant programs in Teeneks. HLA-DRB1*04:07, -DRB1*14:06 and -DRB1*04:11 have been found in high frequency like in other Amerindian groups. High frequency typical Amerindians HLA extended haplotypes have been found, such as A*02-B*35-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02; A*68-B*39-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 and A*02-B*39-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02; also new haplotypes have been described, like A*02-B*52-DRB1*04:11-DQB1*03:02, A*68-B*35-DRB1*14:02-DQB1*03:01 and A*68-B*40-DRB1*16:02-DQB1*03:01. Genetic proximity is observed not only to linguistically close Mayans, but also to Mazatecans, Mixtecans and Zapotecans, who speak an altogether different languages; it shows once more that genes and languages do not correlate. This population was greatly diminished after European contact between 1500 and 1600 years CE; in fact, North and South America First Inhabitants population was brought from 80 down to 8 million people because of diseases (i.e.: measles, smallpox or influenza), slavery and war.     

État de l’art : nouveaux anticoagulants et transfusion

Direct oral anticoagulants (DOAC) are indicated for stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation and for the prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism. As any anticoagulant, they are associated with a bleeding risk. Management of DOAC-induced bleeding is challenging. Idarucizumab, antidote for dabigatran, is currently available and is part of the therapeutic strategy, whereas antidotes for anti-Xa agents are under development. Activated or non-activated prothrombin concentrates are proposed, although their efficacy to reverse DOAC is uncertain. We propose an update on DOAC-associated bleeding management, integrating the availability of idarucizumab and the critical place of DOAC concentration measurements.     

HLA in North Colombia Chimila Amerindians

HLA-A,-B,-C,-DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles have been studied in Chimila Amerindians from Sabana de San Angel (North Colombian Coast) by using high resolution molecular typing. A frequent extended haplotype was found:HLA-A*24:02-B*51:10-C*15:02-BRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 (28.7%) which has also been described in Amerinndian Mayos Mexican population (Mexico, California Gulf, Pacific Ocean). Other haplotypes had already been found in Amerindians from Mexico (Pacific and Atlantic Coast), Peru (highlands and Amazon Basin), Bolivia and North USA. A geographic pattern according to HLA allele or haplotype frequencies is lacking in Amerindians, as already known. Also, five new extended haplotypes were found in Chimila Amerindians. Their HLA-A*24:02 high frequencies characteristic is shared with aboriginal populations of Taiwan; also, HLA-C*01:02 high frequencies are found in New Zealand Maoris, New Caledonians and Kimberly Aborigines from Australia. Finally, this study may show a model of evolutionary factors acting and rising one HLA allele frequency (-A*24:02), but not in others that belong to the same or different HLA loci.     

Renal dysplasia and asplenia in two sibs

A family is reported in which two sibs, one male and the other female, both died within 24 hours of birth with enlarged polycystic kidneys. Postmortem histology in the second child showed gross renal dysplasia. In both children the pancreas was enlarged, nodular and cystic but the liver appeared macroscopically normal. In the second child, histological examination confirmed pancreatic fibrosis with cystic dilation of ducts, but showed portal fibrosis with bile duct proliferation in the liver.
This combination of findings is very reminiscent of those in a girl and her brother reported by Ivemark et al. (1959). The children reported here also showed absence or hypoplasia of the spleen, cardiac anomalies and other features of the Ivemark syndrome (Ivemark 1955), a quite different, usually sporadic, congenital disorder. It is suggested that the children described here have a distinct lethal congenital disorder, probably inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.     

The universal muscular chamber. A basic unit of the genitourinary, cardiovascular, gastro-intestinal, skeletal, cutaneous, respiratory and other systems, endocameral hypertension; and spasm, the key to their idiopathic diseases and arthropathies

Starting with the integument, we see many organs are contractile sacs or multiples thereof, which tubes or bags constitute the major part of the entire body. Recognition of this basic unit and its characteristics sheds new light, individually and collectively, on many disorders previously considered unrelated. Muscular tears and perforations develop in the walls of these chambers, being no way peculiar to those organs, wherein, hydrochloric acid occurs. So, it is not necessary to explain the absence of excessive acid from patients who exhibit holes in the gastric, uterine, aortic, duodenal, rectal, pulmonary, retina, and other walls. Muscle, not acid is the great common factor relating idiopathic disorders in the gastrointestinal tract to each other and to similar diseases in other systems. When the units are linked together, the lesions tend to appear as arthropathies, i.e. at the joints. Rephrasing common-place observations, frees us from conventional, conceptual cul-de-sacs. An observation is only as good as its interpretation, so all possibilities must be considered, otherwise, we will remain blinded by our misconceptions.