Empyema thoracis: a ten-year experience

Over a ten-year period, 50 patients with thoracic empyema have been treated at the Metropolitan Nashville General Hospital, where a systematic, stepwise approach to the management of empyema has been followed. The initial step was thoracentesis; if this failed to resolve the empyema, dependent thoracostomy tube drainage was used. Closed thoracostomy drainage was converted to open drainage when closed drainage failed to obliterate the empyema cavity. When all other measures failed, thoracotomy with pleural decortication was done. Of the 27 patients who had empyema as a consequence of pneumonia, most (14) were successfully treated with open empyema tube drainage, though five required decortication. Eight of the ten posttraumatic empyemas resolved with open drainage, but pleural decortication was necessary in the remaining two cases. Nine patients had postoperative empyemas; six were managed with open drainage, and three resolved with closed thoracostomy drainage. Of the four remaining empyemas, two resolved with closed drainage and two required open drainage. Treatment was successful in 85% of cases, with six deaths (15%). This experience with empyema shows that early, staged surgical management is successful in most cases. In our experience, the causative organism had no bearing on outcome. Resolution of the condition was possible only after adequate drainage and obliteration of the empyema space was accomplished.     

超声引导穿刺抽液并注入尿激酶治疗良性复杂性胸腔积液

目的　探讨超声引导穿刺抽液并注入尿激酶治疗多房性胸腔积液的临床价值。方法　对 36例结核性胸腔积液 (多房性 2 0例 ,包裹性 6例 ,脓胸 10例 )患者 ,超声引导穿刺抽液后并注入生理盐水 5 0 ml稀释的尿激酶 12 .5万 IU,2 4 h后抽尽液体 ,如仍有分隔或积液重复上述治疗。结果　 36例患者共穿刺了 116次 ,成功率 10 0 % ,没有并发症。 2 4例 (6 6 .7% )患者仅经 1次尿激酶治疗后有效 ,总有效率91.7%。 3例 (8.3% )无效。注入尿激酶之后第 1次抽液量较用药前明显增多 (P<0 .0 5 )。而第 2～ 4次用药后抽液量增多不明显 (P>0 .0 5 )。结论　超声引导穿刺抽液并注入尿激酶是治疗多房性胸腔积液的一种安全、有效的方法 ,使绝大多数患者避免了外科手术     

类肺炎性胸腔积液68例临床分析

目的 总结类肺炎性胸腔积液的临床特征及治疗。 方法 对我院收治的68例类肺炎性胸腔积液的临床资料进行回顾性分析,根据辅助检查及实验室检查等,将类肺炎性胸腔积液分成单纯性类肺炎性胸腔积液（uncomplicated parapneumonic effusion,UCPE）及复杂性类肺炎性胸腔积液(complicated parapneumonic effusion,CPE)。比较其临床特点、治疗方法及预后。 结果 68例类肺炎性胸腔积液中,UCPE 51例, CPE 17例。类肺炎性胸腔积液以发热、咳嗽、胸痛为主要临床特点,与单纯肺炎症状相同。复杂性类肺炎性胸腔积液其发热时间较单纯性类肺炎性胸腔积液长,毒血症状重,白细胞计数高,胸水量大。51 例UCPE中,43例经全身应用抗生素治疗治愈,胸水量少不宜定位未能抽取胸水自行吸收、临床症状消失。8例经全身应用抗生素治疗+胸腔穿刺抽液1~2次而治愈;17例CPE中,经抗生素治疗+胸腔穿刺2次或以上者5例,胸腔闭式引流胸水者12例;10例治愈;7例临床症状好转、胸水明显减少出院、随访3月,其中3例胸水完全吸收,2例失访, 2例死亡。复杂性类肺炎性胸腔积液往往多见于年龄大、使用激素等免疫抑制剂及有基础疾病者或就医比较晚者。 结论 区分类肺炎性胸腔积液的分型对治疗相当重要、胸部X线或CT加B超检查可作为首先的检查方法,尽早胸腔穿刺抽取胸水或微管引流胸水,可减少患者发热时间、缩短病程,减少住院天数,明显提高治愈率。     

Intrapleural alteplase in a patient with complicated pleural effusion

OBJECTIVE: To report the intrapleural use of alteplase in a patient diagnosed with complicated pleural effusion (CPE). CASE SUMMARY: A 62-year-old white woman admitted with respiratory distress and hypotension developed a right-sided multi-loculated pleural effusion. Thoracentesis and chest tube drainage were not successful in resolving the effusion. In an attempt to increase the drainage of the pleural effusion, alteplase 16 mg was administered into the pleural cavity via the chest tube on 6 consecutive days. As a result, the volume drained from the patient's chest tube increased, there was improvement on the chest X-ray, and she did not require surgical intervention. DISCUSSION: While streptokinase and urokinase have been shown to be useful adjuncts to chest tube drainage in the treatment of complicated pleural effusion and empyema, there have been no reports on the use of intrapleural alteplase. This report demonstrates that intrapleural administration of alteplase is a useful adjunct to tube drainage in resolving CPE. CONCLUSIONS: This patient's CPE resolved when intrapleural alteplase was used as an adjunct to chest tube drainage and antibiotics. Controlled trials need to be conducted to investigate fully the efficacy, dosing, and safety of intrapleural alteplase in the treatment of patients with CPE and empyema.     

护理干预对恶性胸腔积液胸腔置管引流患者生存质量的影响

目的:探讨护理干预对恶性胸腔积液置管引流患者生存质量的影响.方法:将60例恶性胸腔积液置管引流患者随机分为观察组和对照组各30例,对照组采用常规护理,观察组在常规护理基础上实施系统性护理干预.结果:观察组脱管、胸腔感染、低蛋白血症发生率低于对照组,SGRQ评分结果优于对照组(P＜0.05).结论:为恶性胸腔积液患者胸腔置管引流能有效控制积液、缓解呼吸困难症状,系统性护理干预可以明显提高其生存质量.     

三腔气囊尿管治疗胸腔积液患者的护理

笔介绍三腔气囊尿管治疗胸腔积液患的护理。77例胸腔积液患利用三腔气囊尿管作导管置入胸腔行闭式引流，进行胸液引流及胸腔冲洗、注药。认为：(1)三腔气囊尿管作导管置人胸腔行闭式引流疼痛少；(2)经三腔气囊尿管进行胸腔冲洗、注药方便；(3)用三腔气囊尿管行胸腔闭式引流过程中，做好患心理护理及引流管护理。应用三腔气囊尿管作导管治疗胸腔积液，其操作方法简便、快捷、安全、可靠．便于护理，值得临床应用。     

超声引导胸腔穿刺留置猪尾导管治疗复杂性肺炎旁胸腔积液

目的 探讨超声引导胸腔穿刺留置猪尾导管治疗复杂性肺炎旁胸腔积液的价值.方法 临床确诊的复杂性肺炎旁胸腔积液116例,随机分为两组:治疗组58例采用超声引导胸腔穿刺留置猪尾导管治疗方法;对照组58例,采取常规胸腔闭式引流的方法.两组患者均同时进行全身支持疗法及抗生素治疗.比较两组患者在退热时间、胸腔积液吸收时间、住院天数、治疗后胸膜的厚度、肺功能指标、置管后患者视觉模拟评分等方面的差异.结果 两组间的退热时间、胸腔积液吸收时间、住院天数、治疗后胸膜的厚度、肺功能指标、置管后患者视觉模拟评分比较差异均具有统计学意义(P＜0.05).结论 超声引导胸腔穿刺留置猪尾导管治疗复杂性肺炎旁胸腔积液的方法明显优于传统治疗方法.

Abstract：

Objective To study the value of ultrasound-guided thoracic puncture to indwell pigtail catheter for treating the complicated parapneumonic pleural effusion. Methods One hundred and sixteen patients,clinically diagnosed the complicated parapneumonic pleural effusion,were randomly divided into the treatment group(58 cases) and the control group(58 cases). In the treatment group, patients were treated by ultrasound-guided thoracic puncture to indwell pigtail catheter. In the control group, patients were treated by conventional closed thoracic drainage. At the same time, systemic supportive therapy and antibiotics were given to all patients of two groups. The time of defervescence,the time of pleural effusion absorbed,days in hospital,the thickness of the pleura after treatment, indices of pulmonary function and the visual analogue scales after indwelling catheter were observed. Results In the time of defervescence, the time of pleural effusion absorbed ,days in hospital, the thickness of the pleura after treatment, indices of pulmonary function and the visual analogue scales after indwelling catheter,the differences between two groups were significant (P ＜ 0. 05). Conclusions For complicated parapneumonic pleural effusion, the method by ultrasoundguided thoracic puncture to indwell pigtail catheter is obviously superior to the traditional method.     

Application of ultrasound-guided pigtail catheter for drainage of pleural effusions in the ICU

Background  Little is known about the effectiveness of the pigtail catheter for drainage of pleural effusions in the intensive care unit (ICU). Methods  We conducted a retrospective review of adult patients (≥18 years) who underwent ultrasound-guided pigtail catheter drainage of pleural effusions in the ICUs from January 2005 to July 2007 in a university hospital. Results  Among the 133 enrolled patients, there were 93 (70%) males and 40 (30%) females, with a mean age of 63.7 ± 15.4 years old. The reasons for pigtail drainage were as follows: thoracic empyema (n = 59, 44%), massive transudative pleural effusions (n = 33, 25%), postoperative pleural effusion (n = 29, 15%), malignant pleural effusion (n = 18, 14%) and traumatic hemothorax (n = 3, 2%). In comparing the total amount of fluids drained, the duration of drainage, success rate and complication rate among these different causes of pleural effusion, pigtail drainage for massive transudative pleural effusion yielded the largest amount of pleural fluids (5,382 ± 4,844 ml), provided the longest duration of drainage (9 ± 7 days), and had the highest complication rate (18%). The success rate was highest when used to treat traumatic hemothorax (100%) and postoperative pleural effusions (85%); drains inserted for empyema were more likely to fail (overall success rate, 42%). No significant insertion complications, such as hollow organ perforation, were caused by this procedure. Conclusion  The ultrasound-guided pigtail catheter inserted by intensivists is a well-tolerated and effective method of draining all kinds of pleural effusions in critically ill patients. We suggest that pigtail catheter drainage be considered as the initial treatment of choice in the ICU.     

预防性应用抗生素对气胸患者胸管定植菌的影响

目的 研究气胸患者闭式引流术后胸管定植菌的病原学特点以及预防性抗生素应用在减少病原菌定植方面的意义.方法 入组120例急诊留观的需接受胸腔闭式引流术治疗的气胸患者,随机(随机数字法)分为抗生素组(A组,n=60)和对照组(B组,n=60)完成胸腔置管术,术后A组给予甲磺酸左氧氟沙星氯化钠注射液0.6 g/200 mL·d-1静脉滴注,B组给予0.9%氯化钠注射液200 mL/d静脉滴注直至拔管后24 h.拔管后将胸管前端2 cm剪下行细菌培养.两组数据比较采用χ2检验或Fisher精确概率法.结果 两组120例有49例导管培养阳性,共检出病原菌57株,位于前四位的病原菌分别是凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌(57.9%)、白色假丝酵母菌(10.5%)、金黄色葡萄球菌(7%)和鲍曼不动杆菌(7%),所有细菌对β-内酰胺类抗生素都具有较高的耐药率.有基础疾病的患者的导管细菌检出率(50%)高于单纯气胸患者的31%,两者差异具有统计学意义(P＜0.05).置管时间超过14 d的患者的导管细菌检出率(70%)明显高于置管14 d以内的35%,两者差异具有统计学意义(P＜0.01).置管小于7 d时,A组导管的细菌检出率(8.3%)明显低于B组(52.9%),两者差异有统计学意义(P＜0.01);置管7～14 d时,A组导管的细菌检出率(21.4%)低于B组(68.8%),两者差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);置管大于14 d时,两组导管的细菌检出率皆为70%,两者差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).两组患者在疾病转归和住院天数上差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 气胸患者闭式引流术后常见的胸管定植菌为条件致病菌,细菌耐药现象十分严重.置管时间的延长、患者合并基础疾病都会增加感染的风险.预防性的应用抗菌药物有利于减少短期置管(小于14 d)患者的导管细菌检出率,降低感染的风险,但在缩短住院天数、影响疾病转归方面未证明有益.

Abstract：

Objective To investigate the feature of the microorganisms colonization of the thoracic catheter-related infection and evaluate the clinical significance of prophylactic antibiotics administration in patients with pneumothorax treated with closed thoracic drainage. Method A total of 120 patients with pneumothorax treated with closed thoracic dramage in emergency department wore enrolled. The patients were randomized (random number) into group A (n =60) and group B (n =60). In group A, the patients received levofloxacin mesylate injection and in group B, patients received physiological saline injection instead after closed thoracic drainage. The tip of catheter was cut off to get a 2-cm long segment after catheter removal and this segment was dipped into a bottle filled with liquid culture medium for microorganism culture. Statistical analysis carried out by using χ2 test or Fisher exact test. Results Of all 120 patients, microorganisms were found in 49 segments of catheter and 57 strains of microorganisms were found. The four most common microorganisms were Coagulase-negative staphylococci (57.9%), Candida albicans (10. 5%),Staphylococcus aureus (7%) and Acinetobacter baumanii (7%). All of them were highly drug-resistant to β-1actam antibiotics. The difference in the positive rate of microorganism culture was distinct in pneumothorax patients with underlying diseases (50%) in comparison to the patients without underlying diseases (31%) (P ＜ 0.05). The positive rate of microorganism culture increased significantly as the duration of drainage was longer than 14 days (P ＜ 0.01). The positive rate of culture in group A was lower than that in group B if the duration of drainage was less than 7 days (8.3% vs 52.9%, P ＜ 0.01). The positive rate of culture after drainage for 7 days was 21.4% in group A and 68.8% in group B (P ＜0.05), and that after drainage for over 14 days was 70% in both groups (P ＞ 0.05). There were no significant differences in outcome and days of hospital stay between two groups (P ＞ 0. 05). Conclusions The common colonized microorganisms of thoracic catheter-related infection are conditional pathogens and highly resistant to antibiotics. Lengthening the duration of drainage and having underlying diseases increase the risk of infection. Although prophylactic antibiotics administration is beneficial to decrease the risk of thoracic catheter-related infection, it has no effects on shortening hospital stay and outcome of disease.     

中心静脉导管胸腔闭式引流并灌注化疗治疗恶性胸腔积液临床分析

目的探讨中心静脉导管胸腔闭式引流并灌注化疗治疗恶性胸腔积液临床疗效分析。方法本院2008年1月至2009年10月收治的恶性胸腔积液患者142例,用胸腔内置入中心静脉导管引流并灌注化疗治疗观察临床疗效。结果本组病例完全缓解42例,部分缓解64例,微小反应16例,稳定20例,进展0例,总有效率80％。结论中心静脉导管胸腔闭式引流灌注化疗治疗恶性胸腔积液取得良好的效果,能够有效的减轻临床症状,改善压迫性肺不张、限制性通气障碍、和回心血量的减少等,明显的改善晚期癌肿患者的生活质量。     

中心静脉导管内置术治疗胸腔积液100例临床分析

目的：探讨用中心静脉导管内置术治疗胸腔积液在基层医院的实用性、有效性、安全性。方法：回顾性分析2004年1月至2012年1月收治的100例经B超及x线确诊的中等量以上及包裹性胸腔积液患者的临床资料。结果：100例胸腔积液患者均1次置管成功,并彻底引流,其中7例因官腔堵塞或包裹重新置管,1例发生轻微气胸,5例有轻微胸膜反应,经吸氧、镇静和休息缓解。结论：中心静脉导管内置术治疗胸腔积液安全性高、损伤小,操作简单。     

电子支气管镜代替胸腔镜检查对不明原因胸腔积液的诊断价值

目的 探讨电子支气管镜代替胸腔镜检查对不明原因胸腔积液的诊断价值。方法 选择71例不明原因胸腔积液的患者采用电子支气管镜代替胸腔镜检查，观察镜下病变形态和病理结果。结果 71例患者中，恶性痛变45例。其中腺癌34例，胸膜间皮瘤5例，淋巴瘤2例，未能分类间皮细胞团生长4例；26例良性病变中，结核12例，脓胸8例，3例因胸膜粘连广泛而失败，3例未见明显异常。71例患者中61例明确诊断，诊断总阳性率为85．9％；45例恶性积液中41例明确诊断，诊断阳性率为91．1％。所有病例中，明确诊断恶性病变占57．7％，结核占16．9％，化脓性炎症占11．3％。并发症少，出血、疼痛、发热、胸腔内气体残留均极轻微且很快消失。无1例因不能耐受而终止。结论 电子支气管镜代替胸腔镜检查具有诊断阳性率高、损伤小、操作简单安全等优点，对不明原因的胸腔积液有较高的临床应用价值，值得进一步研究。     

Intrapleural administration of streptokinase in complicated purulent pleural effusion: A CT-guided strategy

Objective To determine the usefulness and the results of a strategy using intrapleural streptokinase (SK) instillation guided by repeated computed tomography (CT) scan examinations in pleural empyemas unresponsive to chest tube drainage.Design A retrospective chart review.Setting The medical Intensive Care Unit and Department of Radiology, in a university hospital.Patients Sixteen patients with empyema who had a persistent pleural effusion despite drainage, among 37 patients with infectious pleural effusion.Interventions In the 16 patients, CT examination was performed before and at least once after SK. Intrapleural SK was instilled, either through the chest tube or via a needle puncture, according to the CT scan, results.Results The first CT scan confirmed a persistent effusion in all, showing a multiloculated effusion in 13 patients, and an ectopic loculus in one. The first SK instillation resulted in a dramatic increase of fluid drained per day (from 68±28 ml to 567±262 ml;p<0.001), leading to complete resolution in 11 patients, while the others required a second CT scanguided procedure. In one, the chest tube was misplaced, while in two, transparietal injection was needed. Finally, a complete resolution was observed in 14 (87.5%) of the patients. Two patients had a poor initial response to SK and were eventually scheduled for video-thoracoscopy. A single episode of chills and fever was observed among 32 SK instillations.Conclusion CT-guided SK instillation in pleural empyema appears to be safe, and allowed complete resolution in 87.5% of our patients.     

Thoracic empyema in children: Clinical presentation,microbiology analysis and therapeutic options

Thoracic empyema is an accumulation of purulent fluid in the pleural space presenting as a complication of bacterial pneumonia. The aims of the study were to present the incidence, demographic results, clinical presentation, laboratory and microbiology results, imaging and the therapeutic options. From January 1992 until December 2009 we collected data of children hospitalized with empyema in our medical center in north of Israel. Empyema was found in 53 pediatric patients. The median age of the patients was 3 years and 31 (58%) were male. Forty one (77%) of the cases were diagnosed in the last nine years. Fever, cough and respiratory distress were the most frequent clinical signs. In 29 (55%) patients pleural effusion was found at admission. Chest ultrasound was performed in 44 (83%) of the patients. Causative organisms were confirmed by culture in 35 patients. Positive culture was found in 17 (32%) patients in the pleural fluid. Streptococcus pneumoniae was the leading pathogen. The drugs the patients received at admission were penicillin in 21 cases, cefuroxime in19 cases and ceftriaxone in 11 cases. During hospitalization a change of antibiotic therapy was required, using mainly ceftriaxone and clindamycin. The pleural purulent fluid was drained by video assisted thoracoscopy surgery in 34 (64%) patients. All the children recovered. The incidence of empyema as a complication of community acquired pneumonia had increased in the last decade in our region. Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common pathogen. Third generation cephalosprins and clindamycin can be suggested as a good empiric treatment.     

Clinical and microbiological characteristics in cases of positive blood cultures at Shin-Kokura Hospital during a period of 5 years

In order to evaluate the present state of bacteremia, we investigated the clinical and microbiological characteristics of positive blood culture cases hospitalized in Shin-Kokura Hospital from January 1998 through December 2002. Seventy-five cases showed positive blood cultures during the 5 years, and 48 cases (64%) were 70 years old or more. Most of the cases had underlying diseases, such as malignancy. The diagnoses of the infectious diseases found included pneumonia (9 cases), enteric infection (9 cases), hepatobiliary infection (8 cases), urinary tract infection (8 cases), and endocarditis (6 cases). A total of 102 strains of microorganism were isolated, and Gram-positive bacteria accounted for 64.7% of the cases, with Gram-negative bacteria accounting for 29.4%. Most of the isolated microorganisms showed good susceptibility to antimicrobial agents except for MRSA. Antimicrobial agents were used for 54 cases of bacteremia, and 33 patients improved, but 21 patients died, including 10 whose death was due to infection. In this study, the 54 cases of bacteremia (72% of all cases with a positive blood culture) showed a mortality rate of 18.5% due to infection, in spite of adequate antimicrobial treatment. Our data suggest that physicians should recognize the difficulty of treating bacteremia, and should pay close attention to the physical condition of patients with bacteremia.     

尿激酶联合胸腔闭式引流对结核性包裹性胸腔积液的疗效分析

目的探讨尿激酶联合胸腔闭式引流对结核性包裹性胸腔积液的临床疗效。方法将2007年2月至2011年2月收治的结核性包裹性胸腔积液患者随机分为实验组与对照组,其中实验组患者67例,对照组患者60例,对实验组患者采用尿激酶联合胸腔闭式引流进行治疗,对照组采用胸腔闭式引流进行治疗。结果实验组患者临床疗效明显优于对照组(P<0.05);白蛋白以及白细胞浓度明显低于对照组(P<0.05);结核性包裹性胸腔积液消失时间以及患者住院天数和胸膜厚度的比较均优于对照组(P<0.05)。结论对结核性包裹性胸腔积液患者采用尿激酶联合胸腔闭式引流进行治疗,可提高治疗效果,有效改善患者预后。     

胸腔镜手术危险因素分析及并发症防治

目的研究电视胸腔镜手术(video-assistedthoracoscopicsurgery,VATS)在胸外科诊疗中的应用,重点研究VATS手术危险因素和并发症的防治。方法总结2000年1月￣2005年1月应用胸腔镜辅助手术298例,主要病种包括自发性气胸172例,肺肿瘤54例,纵隔肿瘤或囊肿32例,以及肺大疱7例,恶性胸腔积液7例、心包积液4例、脓胸7例。结果平均手术时间56min,平均术后住院时间7d,手术效果满意。中转开胸完成手术24例(8.1%),手术并发症37例(12.4%),其中手术后死亡2例,无术中死亡。主要并发症为肺漏气、呼吸道感染、肺不张、复张性肺水肿、出血等。结论VATS及辅助小切口在胸外科的应用具有创伤小、恢复快、安全可靠等优点。危险因素包括病人的年龄、术前心肺功能、病变的时间、部位、大小、良恶性、外侵程度、术者操作的熟练程度等。加强围术期的管理,严格掌握VATS手术指征,提高手术操作技巧,正确使用辅助小切口或中转开胸,是减少手术并发症的关键。     

负压防反流技术联合白介素-2治疗恶性胸腔积液的临床研究

目的观察负压防反流技术联合白介素-2(IL-2)治疗恶性胸腔积液临床疗效及安全性。方法 196例恶性胸腔积液患者随机分为3组:A组应用负压防反流装置,将胸腔积液引流干净注入IL-2;B组应用胸腔置中心静脉导管引流胸水,无胸水流出时注入IL-2;C组应用胸腔穿刺抽液,至不能抽出胸水时注入IL-2。比较3组患者临床疗效及安全性。结果 A组136例患者胸水治疗总有效率明显高于B、C组;而1年、2年、3年无胸水生存率明显高于B、C组;所有患者耐受良好,无严重毒副反应及并发症。结论负压反流技术联合IL-2治疗恶性胸腔积液有效率及安全性高,值得临床普遍推广应用。     

中心静脉导管引流胸腔积液210例临床分析

目的：比较两种胸腔积液引流方法的效果。方法：统计210例（A组）使用中心静脉导管引流胸腔积液患者的引流胸水量、胸水消失天数、胸水完全吸收率,并与182例（B组）使用传统抽液引流胸腔积液患者进行对比研究。结果：平均胸水量A组（4682±1235）mL,B组（2470±1040）mL;胸水消失天数：A组（6.5±2.6）d,B组（23.6±9.3）d;胸水完全吸收率：A组73.8%,B组25.8%,两组各指标均具有显著性差异（P〈0.01）。结论：中心静脉导管引流胸腔积液较传统穿刺方法安全有效。     

The posterior thoracic approach in echocardiography.

Echocardiograms were recorded using a left posterior thoracic approach in 17 patients with left pleural effusion. Comparison of these records with those obtained using the conventional technique in the same patients revealed that the left posterior thoracic approach yielded records of adequate quality in all patients. The mitral valve, the left ventricle, and the posterior pericardium were well defined. In 10 patients in whom pericardial effusion was also p;esent, the posterior approach facilitated clear separation of the pleural and pericardial effusions. A major limitation of the posterior technique appears to be inability to record the aortic root, the aortic valve, and the left atrium.