Cervical Radiculopathy Caused by a Vertebral Artery Loop: Is a Focused Fluoroscopic‐Guided Cervical Epidural Steroid Injection a Possible Treatment Modality?

We describe a case of a patient suffering with cervical radiculopathy due to vertebral artery loop with nerve root compression, treated with an epidural steroid injection. A 37‐year‐old man presented with a 2‐year history of right‐sided radicular pain along the C7 dermatome. Imaging showed a right‐sided loop of the vertebral artery at the V1–V2 transition with contact on the C7 nerve root. The pain was resistant to conservative treatment, and the decision was made to perform a focused fluoroscopy‐guided translaminar epidural steroid injection near the C7 nerve root. The procedure was uneventful, and the symptoms resolved completely after the procedure. Targeted epidural steroid injection might be a useful and safe diagnostic and therapeutic approach in patients affected by cervical radiculopathy due to a VA loop. To our knowledge, this is the first case of a VA loop associated with cervical radiculopathy treated with this technique.     

Vasovagal Reactions and Other Complications of Cervical vs. Lumbar Translaminar Epidural Steroid Injections

Objective:   To document the per patient rate of vasovagal reactions and other complications of cervical vs. lumbar translaminar epidural steroid injections.
Background:   Anecdotal observations at our institution suggested that vasovagal reactions are much more common during cervical epidural steroid injections than lumbar injections, and more frequent than previously reported.
Methods:   Records of 249 patients undergoing their first cervical epidural steroid injection were reviewed for vasovagal reactions and other adverse events. For comparison, a first lumbar epidural steroid injection performed by the same staff physician was matched to each cervical procedure and reviewed for complications.
Results:   The incidence of vasovagal reaction was 7 points more common ( P  < 0.001, 95% confidence interval 0.04–0.12) in the cervical group (8%) than in the lumbar group (1%). This correlates to an additional vasovagal reaction for every 14 patients who were treated with cervical injection in comparison with those treated with lumbar injection.
Discussion:   The risk of vasovagal reaction is significantly higher for cervical translaminar epidural steroid injections than for lumbar injections. The risk of vasovagal reaction remained higher for cervical injection even when adjusting for differences between the two populations. The higher rate of cervical vasovagal reactions may result from a combination of anxiety, the prone position with neck flexed, head drapes, and stimulus from a neck procedure.
Conclusion:   Increased vigilance for patients undergoing translaminar cervical epidural steroid injections may be warranted. Clinicians may choose to consider these results when counseling patients regarding risk and the need for conscious sedation during the procedure.     

The Role of Adding Hyaluronidase to Fluoroscopically Guided Caudal Steroid and Hypertonic Saline Injection in Patients with Failed Back Surgery Syndrome: A Prospective,Double‐Blinded,Randomized Study

Background: Failed back surgery syndrome (FBSS) has been reported to account for up to 40% of patients with chronic low back pain. Epidural fibrosis may be responsible for up to 30% of all cases of FBSS. Perineural fibrosis can interfere with cerebrospinal fluid‐mediated nutrition, rendering the nerve root hyperesthetic and hypersensitive to compression. Traditionally, steroid injection has been used to treat low back pain and radiculopathy. The addition of hyaluronidase to the injectate has been reported to reduce the degree of fibrosis. Aim: To evaluate the role of hyaluronidase when added to fluoroscopically guided caudal steroid and hypertonic saline in patients with FBSS. Methods: Thirty‐eight patients with back pain because of FBSS were studied. Twenty patients received fluoroscopically guided caudal epidural steroid, local anesthetic, and hypertonic saline in combination (group 1), and 18 patients received fluoroscopically guided caudal epidural steroid, hypertonic saline, local anesthetic, and hyaluronidase (group 2). Patients were asked to rate their pain using a verbal scale of 0 to 4 (0 = none, 1 = mild, 2 = moderate, 3 = severe, and 4 = extremely severe). Lumbar spine range of motion and opioid intake were measured. Result: Significant improvement in short‐term pain relief was noted in both groups, while significant long‐term pain relief was only achieved in group 2 patients. Conclusion: The addition of hyaluronidase to fluoroscopically guided caudal epidural steroid and hypertonic saline combination improved long‐term pain relief in patients with FBSS.     

Fluoroscopic analysis of lumbar epidural contrast spread after lumbar interlaminar injection

Weil L, Frauwirth NH, Amirdelfan K, Grant D, Rosenberg JA. Fluoroscopic analysis of lumbar epidural contrast spread after lumbar interlaminar injection.

Objective

To describe and answer questions concerning the spread of contrast in patients receiving correctly placed lumbar epidural steroid injections (ESIs) under fluoroscopy.

Design

Prospective observational study.

Setting

An outpatient surgery center.

Participants

Consecutive patients (N=114) receiving ESIs under fluoroscopy who met inclusion criteria.

Interventions

Not applicable.

Main Outcome Measures

Spread of contrast in relation to variables, including unilateral versus bilateral, anterior versus posterior, and spread more than 1 level caudally versus less than 1 level. Variables were examined in relation to needle tip placement, level of injection, and male versus female patients. All data were collected with fluoroscopy images in lateral and anteroposterior views after injection of 5mL of fluid.

Results

Spread was greater than 1 segment caudally more than 75% of the time under all variables. Anterior versus posterior epidural spread on the lateral view was approximately even over all cases and anterior spread was found more often when the needle was within the width of the distal spinous process tip. Needle placement medial or lateral to the spinous process width also significantly affected whether the spread was unilateral versus bilateral. If the needle tip was lateral to the width of the spinous process, spread was unilateral 75% of the time, versus 45% of the time if the needle tip was medial.

Conclusions

Contrast spread is affected by needle placement, with other variables kept equal, in the performance of an interlaminar lumbar ESI. These data support the performance of interlaminar lumbar ESIs with fluoroscopic guidance and provide some parameters with which to guide the injectionist.     

Needle‐Through‐Needle Technique in Lumbar Interlaminar Epidural Steroid Injection: A Case Report

When performing lumbar epidural steroid injection on obese patients, needle placement can be challenging due to the difficulty in estimating the appropriate needle length to utilize. Often times, the standard 3.5‐inch Tuohy needle is too short to reach its target. In our case report, a needle‐through‐needle technique was attempted in a lumbar interlaminar epidural steroid injection procedure after the initial needle fell short of the epidural space. To avoid removing the initial needle and restarting the procedure using a longer needle, a 20‐gauge 6‐inch Tuohy needle was inserted into the 17‐gauge 3.5‐inch Tuohy needle, successfully reaching the epidural space. This technique can facilitate quicker needle placement by avoiding the need for restarting the procedure with a longer needle. Thus, procedural time and radiation exposure may be decreased, as may patient discomfort from repeat needle insertions.     

Complications and pitfalls of lumbar interlaminar and transforaminal epidural injections

Lumbar interlaminar and transforaminal epidural injections are used in the treatment of lumbar radicular pain and other lumbar spinal pain syndromes. Complications from these procedures arise from needle placement and the administration of medication. Potential risks include infection, hematoma, intravascular injection of medication, direct nerve trauma, subdural injection of medication, air embolism, disc entry, urinary retention, radiation exposure, and hypersensitivity reactions. The objective of this article is to review the complications of lumbar interlaminar and transforaminal epidural injections and discuss the potential pitfalls related to these procedures. We performed a comprehensive literature review through a Medline search for relevant case reports, clinical trials, and review articles. Complications from lumbar epidural injections are extremely rare. Most if not all complications can be avoided by careful technique with accurate needle placement, sterile precautions, and a thorough understanding of the relevant anatomy and contrast patterns on fluoroscopic imaging.     

2. Cervical radicular pain

Introduction

Cervical radicular pain is pain perceived in the upper limb, caused by irritation or compression of a cervical spine nerve, the roots of the nerve, or both.

Methods

The literature on the diagnosis and treatment of cervical radicular pain was retrieved and summarized.

Results

The diagnosis is made by combining elements from the patient's history, physical examination, and supplementary tests. The Spurling and shoulder abduction tests are the two most common examinations used to identify cervical radicular pain. MRI without contrast, CT scanning, and in some cases plain radiography can all be appropriate imaging techniques for nontraumatic cervical radiculopathy. MRI is recommended prior to interventional treatments. Exercise with or without other treatments can be beneficial. There is scant evidence for the use of paracetamol, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and neuropathic pain medications such as gabapentin, pregabalin, tricyclic antidepressants, and anticonvulsants for the treatment of radicular pain. Acute and subacute cervical radicular pain may respond well to epidural corticosteroid administration, preferentially using an interlaminar approach. By contrast, for chronic cervical radicular pain, the efficacy of epidural corticosteroid administration is limited. In these patients, pulsed radiofrequency treatment adjacent to the dorsal root ganglion may be considered.

Conclusions

There is currently no gold standard for the diagnosis of cervical radicular pain. There is scant evidence for the use of medication. Epidural corticosteroid injection and pulsed radiofrequency adjacent to the dorsal root ganglion may be considered. [Correction added on 12 June 2023, after first online publication: The preceding sentence was corrected.]     

硬膜外激素注射治疗腰椎间盘突出症的Meta分析

目的:对硬膜外激素注射联合常规方法治疗腰椎间盘突出症是否有助于提高疗效进行系统评价。方法:检索MEDLINE、PROQUEST、CSA和BIOSISPreviews及中国期刊网、重庆维普、万方数据库中收录的1986年1月—2004年3月间有关硬膜外激素注射对腰椎间盘突出症治疗作用的随机对照临床试验方面的文献。结果:按照入选标准最终有11项随机对照临床试验纳入本研究。用RevMan4.1(3.1)软件进行统计分析。结论:初步认为硬膜外激素注射治疗对腰椎间盘突出症有较好的临床疗效,但由于国内外缺乏高质量的随机对照研究支持,对硬膜外激素注射治疗腰椎间盘突出症的疗效尚不能作最后结论,需进一步的高质量的临床随机对照研究证实。     

Bertolotti's Syndrome: A Case Report

Study Design:   A case report and literature review is presented.
Objective:   To review relevant data for the management of Bertolotti's syndrome and to determine whether the transverse process-ilium articulation may be a pain generator.
Background:   Bertolotti's syndrome is associated with axial low back pain secondary to arthritic changes; the pain generator in the disorder is unclear.
Methods:   We present a case report of symptomatic Bertolotti's syndrome managed with intra-articular steroid injections.
Results:   A patient with Bertolotti's syndrome had significant relief of axial pain after steroid injection of the ilium-transverse process articulation.
Conclusions:   Steroid therapy may be a non-surgical alternative for the treatment of symptomatic Bertolotti's syndrome.     

Incidence and Severity of Epidural Fibrosis after Back Surgery: An Endoscopic Study

Background:   Epidural fibrosis has been implicated in the etiology of persistent pain after back surgery (Failed Back Surgery Syndrome [FBSS]). Using spinal endoscopy to view the lumbosacral epidural cavity, the incidence, severity, and appearance of epidural fibrosis was evaluated in patients with FBSS.
Methods:   A prospective cohort observational study using epidural endoscopy was done involving 78 patients with persistent pain after back surgery. Patients were evaluated prospectively for the presence of epidural fibrosis and fibrosis was rated using a 4-level grading system based on appearance and resistance to epiduroscope advancement. The incidence of fibrosis detected by epiduroscopy vs. the incidence as reported in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies for the same patients were compared.
Results:   As diagnosed with epiduroscopy, 83.3% of all patients with persistent pain after back surgery had severe (grade 3 or 4) epidural fibrosis, while 91.0% had significant (grade 2, 3, or 4) fibrosis. In patients who had undergone more extensive surgery, severe fibrosis was present in 91.1% and significant fibrosis in 95.6%. Using MRI, epidural fibrosis was diagnosed only in 16.1% of these patients. All patients with severe epidural fibrosis had a filling defect on epidurography. Concordant pain was present in 84.3% of patients and depended on the severity of fibrosis. Results were statistically evaluated using analysis of frequencies and t -test. P  < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
Conclusions:   Epiduroscopy demonstrates that the prevalence of severe epidural fibrosis after FBSS is substantially higher than is generally reported in MRI evaluations. Severe epidural fibrosis is an underlying pathology in most patients with FBSS.     

Epidural Steroid and Clonidine for Chronic Intractable Post‐thoracotomy Pain: A Pilot Study

Background: Chronic post‐thoracotomy pain is relatively common after major thoracic surgery. The primary results of a pilot study using thoracic epidural steroid and clonidine injection to treat chronic intractable post‐thoracotomy pain are presented. Methods: Twenty‐one patients with intractable post‐thoracotomy pain participated in the study. Thirteen patients received thoracic epidural injection of a mixture of 150 μg clonidine and 80 mg of methylprednisolone acetate diluted in 8 mL 0.5% lidocaine. Eight patients continued with comprehensive medical management and served as a control group. A visual analog scale (VAS) for pain was recorded before treatment, 30 minutes after the epidural injection and before discharge, at 3 weeks and 6 months. Pain, sleep disturbances, appetite changes and daily activity, as well as the incidence of complications were recorded. The need for opioid rescue medications was recorded. Results: Twelve of 13 patients in the injection group reported improvement (> 50% reduction of pain) at 3 weeks and 6 months following the injection. Allodynia improved in all injection group patients compared to four of eight in the control group. Sleep disturbance, appetite changes and daily activity were improved in the injection group. The number of patients requiring opioid rescue medications was reduced from 61.5% to 15.3% during the 6‐month duration of study. Injection caused transient hypotension in 46.2% of patients. Mild sedation was noted in 30.7% of patients receiving injection; 15.3% of the patients had localized back pain at the site of injection. Discussion: Our preliminary data suggest possible efficacy of thoracic epidural steroid and clonidine mixture in the treatment of chronic post‐thoracotomy pain. No serious adverse effects were noted in this pilot study. ?     

Extended-Release Epidural Morphine (DepoDur™): An Old Drug with a New Profile

Abstract:   The FDA has recently approved a novel formulation for epidural morphine administration that allows a single injection to provide 48 hours of analgesia. This may eliminate the need for an indwelling epidural catheter in some circumstances and therefore be particularly well suited to postoperative situations where anticoagulation is required. Other uses that have been less thoroughly studied should be approached with due caution.     

Comparison of Epidural Depo-Medrol vs. Aqueous Betamethasone in Patients with Low Back Pain

Abstract: Despite the popularity of epidural steroid injections for low back pain, there still remains a lack of consensus on which type of steroid to inject. Most comparison studies regarding epidural steroids are based on an assumption that different types of steroids are equal as long as equipotent doses are utilized. In the spring of 2002, a national shortage of all depo steroids allowed the authors to compare epidural methylprednisolone (Depo‐Medrol) to a non depo form of betamethasone in patients with low back pain. Patients who received epidural methylprednisolone (Depo‐Medrol) reported significant reduction in pain ratings as well as disability scores after 4 weeks, while patients receiving betamethasone showed no significant difference in pain or disability scores. This study shows that the aqueous steroid betamethasone is not an effective alternative to the commonly used depo‐steroid methylprednisolone (Depo‐Medrol) when injected epidurally in patients with lumbar pain. The study also shows that the anti‐inflammatory effect of a depo‐steroid can be greater than a non‐depo steroid, even at equipotent doses. This should be an important factor to consider when reviewing epidural steroid outcome studies, where the type of steroid might affect results as much as other variables such as route of administration, volume of injectate, or use of fluoroscopy.     

Accuracy of Caudal Epidural Injection: The Importance of Real-Time Imaging

Abstract:   Caudal epidural steroid injections are often used for low back pain. Fluoroscopic guidance has been frequently cited as a requirement for this procedure.
In this preliminary report, we demonstrate that fluoroscopic guidance for caudal epidural Tuohy needle placement without real-time imaging may result in inadvertent intravenous injection of the drug. We detected intravenous leakage of the drug in 4 cases of 10 when real-time fluoroscopic imaging was used. Thus, real-time imaging may be recommended in addition to routine fluoroscopic guidance for caudal epidural procedures, as it may improve efficacy and safety by assuring accurate drug deposition.     

硬脊膜外腔阻滞对兔神经根病理学影响的实验研究

目的：通过观察脊髓、神经根的超微结构变化，了解利多卡因、罗哌卡因注入硬膜外腔后对已损伤神经根的组织病理学影响。方法：实验用大白兔30只，硬膜外腔置管成功后随机分5组，每组6只。L组：注入利多卡因。R组：注入罗哌卡因。S组：在置管同一间隙损伤一侧神经根。SL组：损伤一侧神经根后注入利多卡因。SR组：损伤一侧神经根后注入罗哌卡因。除S组外，余均每隔12小时注药一次，连续2日，第七日灌杀、固定、取材，进行光镜电镜观察。结果：SL组、SR组有明显的细胞器变性及神经根脱髓鞘等改变。结论：临床操作出现神经根损伤时，应慎用椎管内阻滞。     

Cervical epidural steroid injections in the management of cervical radiculitis: interlaminar versus transforaminal. A review

There has been recent concern regarding the safety of cervical epidural steroid injections. The decision to proceed with treatment requires balancing the risk and benefits. This article is an in depth review of the efficacy, complications, and technique of both interlaminar and transforaminal cervical epidural steroid injections in the management of cervical radiculitis.     

MULTIDISCIPLINARY PAIN ABSTRACTS: 5

In this study, the authors prospectively evaluated whether abnormalities at the lumbar level as diagnosed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are confirmed by epiduroscopy, and assessed if targeted epidural injection of medication alleviates sciatic pain. A flexible, 0.9-mm fiberoptic endoscope was introduced through a disposable steering shaft into the caudal epidural space and advanced until the targeted spinal nerve was identified. Adhesions were mechanically mobilized under direct vision, and a mixture of 120 mg methylprednisolone acetate, 600 IU hyaluronidase, and 150 μg clonidine was applied locally. Pain scores were measured by the visual analog scale (VAS) and global subjective efficacy rating. Nineteen of 20 patients studied showed adhesions via epiduroscopy. Six patients showed concomitant signs of active root inflammation. Of 20 patients treated with a targeted epidural injection, 11 patients experienced significant pain relief at 3 months. This was maintained at 6 months for eight of the patients, at 9 months for seven of the patients, and at 12 months for seven of the patients. Mean VAS at 3 months was significantly reduced and this persisted at 12 months Epiduroscopy is of value in the diagnosis of spinal root pathology. In sciatica, adhesions unreported by MRI can be identified. Targeted epidural medication administered near the compromised spinal nerve results in substantial and prolonged pain relief.     

Complications of fluoroscopically guided interlaminar cervical epidural injections

OBJECTIVES: To assess the incidence of complications of fluoroscopically guided interlaminar cervical epidural injections. DESIGN: A retrospective cohort design study. SETTING: A multidisciplinary spine care center. PARTICIPANTS: One hundred fifty-seven consecutive patients with cervical radicular pain caused by cervical spondylosis or herniated nucleus pulposus confirmed by magnetic resonance imaging or computed tomography scanning. INTERVENTIONS: Fluoroscopically guided interlaminar cervical epidural injections were performed at the C7-T1 or C6-7 level using an 18-gauge, 9-mm Tuohy needle with 2mL of 1% lidocaine (Xylocaine) and 80-mg of triamcinolone acetonide (Kenalog). All injections were performed consecutively over a 12-month period by 1 of 5 physicians. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: An independent observer reviewed medical charts, which included a 24-hour postprocedure telephone call by an ambulatory surgery center nurse who asked a standardized questionnaire about complications after the injections. Also reviewed were physician notes regarding office follow-up consultations 3 weeks or less after the injections and epidurograms. RESULTS: The charts of 157 patients, who received 345 injections, were reviewed. Complications per injection included 23 increased neck pain (6.7%), 16 transient nonpositional headaches that resolved within 24 hours (4.6%), 6 episodes of insomnia the night of the injection (1.7%), 6 vasovagal reactions (1.7%), 5 facial flushing (1.5%), 1 fever the night of the procedure (0.3%), and 1 dural puncture (0.3%). The incidence of all complications per injection was 16.8%. CONCLUSIONS: Because all complications resolved without morbidity and no patient required hospitalization, fluoroscopically guided interlaminar cervical epidural injections may be a safe procedure for use in patients with cervical radicular pain.     

A critical appraisal of the evidence for selective nerve root injection in the treatment of lumbosacral radiculopathy

OBJECTIVE: To critically review the best available trials of the utility of transforaminal epidural steroid injections (TFESIs) or selective nerve root blocks (SNRBs) to treat lumbosacral radiculopathy. DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE (PubMed, Ovid, MDConsult), EMBASE, and the Cochrane database. Databases were searched from inception through 2003. STUDY SELECTION: A database search was conducted by using the following key words: prospective , transforaminal and foraminal epidural steroid injections , selective nerve root block and injection , and periradicular and nerve root injection . We included English-language, prospective, randomized studies of patients with lower-limb radicular symptoms treated with fluoroscopically guided nerve root or transforaminal epidural injections. DATA EXTRACTION: Data were compiled for each of the following categories: inclusion criteria, randomization protocol, total number of subjects enrolled initially and at final analysis, statistical analysis utilized, documentation of technique, outcome measures, follow-up intervals and results (positive or negative), and reported complications. These data were abstracted by 1 reviewer and reviewed by a second. Study quality was assessed with the system developed by the Agency for Health Care and Policy Research. DATA SYNTHESIS: We selected 6 articles for review. Our analysis identified a single article as the highest quality study addressing the appropriate use of TFESIs or therapeutic SNRBs. Coupled with the evidence provided by 4 other articles (1 article was excluded because its patients were not truly randomized), our review of the evidence for TFESIs found level III (moderate) evidence in support of these minimally invasive and safe procedures in treating painful radicular symptoms. However, conclusive evidence (level I) is lacking. CONCLUSIONS: The evidence for TFESIs reveals level III (moderate) evidence in support of these minimally invasive and safe procedures in treating painful lumbar radicular symptoms. Current studies support use of TFESIs as a safe and minimally invasive adjunct treatment for lumbar radicular symptoms. However, more prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled studies using sham procedures are needed to provide conclusive evidence for the efficacy of TFESIs in treating lumbar radicular symptoms.