Dynamic temporal and spatial regulation of mu opioid receptor expression in primary afferent neurons following spinal nerve injury

Despite using prescribed pain medications, patients with neuropathic pain continue to experience moderate to severe pain. There is a growing recognition of a potent peripheral opioid analgesia in models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain. The goal of this study was to characterize the temporal and spatial expression of mu opioid receptor (mOR) mRNA and protein in primary afferent neurons in a rat L5 spinal nerve ligation model of persistent neuropathic pain. Bilateral L4 and L5 dorsal root ganglia (DRGs), L4 and L5 spinal cord segments, and hind paw plantar skins were collected on days 0 (naïve), 3, 7, 14, and 35 post‐spinal nerve ligation or post‐sham surgery. We found that expression of mOR mRNA and protein in primary afferent neurons changed dynamically and site‐specifically following L5 spinal nerve ligation. Real‐time RT—PCR, immunohistochemistry, and Western blot analysis demonstrated a down‐regulation of mOR mRNA and protein in the injured L5 DRG. In contrast, in the uninjured L4 DRG, mOR mRNA transiently decreased on day 7 and then increased significantly on day 14. Western blot analysis revealed a persistent increase in mOR protein expression, although immunohistochemistry showed no change in number of mOR‐positive neurons in the uninjured L4 DRG. Interestingly, mOR protein expression was reduced in the skin on days 14 and 35 post‐nerve injury and in the L4 and L5 spinal cord on day 35 post‐nerve injury. These temporal and anatomically specific changes in mOR expression following nerve injury are likely to have functional consequences on pain‐associated behaviors and opioid analgesia.     

Focal peripheral nerve injury induces leukocyte trafficking into the central nervous system: potential relationship to neuropathic pain

The present study was undertaken to determine whether leukocytes are recruited into the spinal cord following a peripheral L5 spinal nerve transection that results in mechanical allodynia (increased tactile sensitivity behavior correlates with neuropathic pain). In rats subjected to bone marrow irradiation, donor-specific major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I (I1-69) positive peripheral immune cells trafficked to the L5 spinal cord in response to an L5 spinal nerve injury. The number of I1-69 positive cell profiles increased over time and correlated with increased mechanical allodynia. At early time points following injury, I1-69 positive immune cells co-regionalized with the expression of the macrophage marker ED2. At later time points following injury, some of the infiltrating immune cells did not co-regionalize with the macrophage marker ED2. At no time did the infiltrating cells co-regionalize with the neuronal marker (NeuN). Both macrophage-like morphology and T cell-like morphology were observed in the I1-69 positive cellular infiltrate. Conversely, animals that underwent sham surgery demonstrated little mechanical allodynia and a minimal number of infiltrating peripheral immune cells. In a separate group of rats, infiltration of CD3+ T-lymphocytes was confirmed at 14 days post-nerve transection. This study demonstrates trafficking of leukocytes into the lumbar spinal cord at time points that correlate with mechanical allodynia suggesting a role of central neuroinflammation in persistent neuropathic pain.     

复方倍他米松局部注射后自体髓核移植模型大鼠脊髓及背根神经节中P物质和降钙素基因相关肽变化

背景：复方倍他米松注射液治疗椎间盘突出症临床应用广泛,但其具体作用机制尚不明确。目的：探讨局部注射复方倍他米松对自体髓核移植模型大鼠脊髓及背根神经节中P物质和降钙素基因相关肽的影响。方法：36只SD大鼠随机分为4组,即：空白组、模型组、假手术组、西药组,每组9只。模型组和西药组适应性喂养1周后手术制作大鼠自体髓核移植模型。于术后第3,7,12天,模型组和假手术组给予128.25μL生理盐水,西药组给予复方倍他米松注射液13.5μL＋2%利多卡因注射液67.5μL。末次给药12 h取L4-6节段脊髓及背根神经节,采用免疫荧光染色方法测定两种组织中P物质和降钙素基因相关肽的含量。结果与结论：各组大鼠脊髓、背根神经节中P物质和降钙素基因相关肽平均荧光强度比较,差异有显著性意义（P 〈0.01）,进一步两两比较：与空白组、假手术组相比较,模型组大鼠脊髓、背根神经节中P物质和降钙素基因相关肽含量显著性增高（P 〈0.01）,证明模型复制可靠;与模型组、假手术组相比较,西药组大鼠脊髓、背根神经节中P物质和降钙素基因相关肽含量显著性降低（P 〈0.01）。结果表明复方倍他米松治疗腰椎间盘突出症的作用机制,可能是通过抑制背根神经节神经元合成和分泌P物质,清除背根神经节中P物质和降钙素基因相关肽,减少其向脊髓传递,从而抑制和缓解疼痛。     

Spatial patterns of spinal cord [14C]-2-deoxyglucose metabolic activity in a rat model of painful peripheral mononeuropathy.

Spatial patterns of spinal cord glucose metabolic activity were examined in unanesthetized rats with painful peripheral mononeuropathy produced by sciatic nerve ligation (chronic constrictive injury, CCI). Spinal cord metabolic activity was assessed 10 days after nerve ligation by using the fully quantitative [14C]2-deoxyglucose technique. This technique allows simultaneous examination of both neural activity inferred from local glucose utilization and its spatial distribution in multiple spinal regions previously implicated in nociceptive processing. Rats used in the experiment exhibited thermal hyperalgesia to radiant heat applied to the hind paw ipsilateral to nerve ligation and behaviors indicative of spontaneous pain. Sciatic nerve ligation produced a significant increase in spinal cord metabolic activity in four sampling regions (laminae I-IV, V-VI, VII and VIII-IX) of lumbar segments compared to sham-operated rats. The pattern of altered metabolic activity in CCI rats presented 3 distinct features. (1) The spinal cord grey matter both ipsilateral and contralateral to nerve ligation exhibited substantial increases in metabolic activity compared to sham-operated rats. (2) This increase in metabolic activity was somatotopically specific, i.e., higher metabolic rates were observed on the side ipsilateral to nerve ligation than on the contralateral side, and higher metabolic rates were seen in the medial portion of the ipsilateral spinal cord dorsal horn than in the lateral portion. The peak metabolic activity occurred in laminae V-VI of CCI rats, a region involved in nociceptive processing. (3) The increase in spinal cord metabolic activity of CCI rats extended from lumbar segment L1 to L5 in all 4 sampling regions. The substantial increase in metabolic activity in both the ipsilateral and contralateral spinal cord that occurs over an extensive rostro-caudal area in CCI rats may represent a unique pattern of spinal cord metabolic activity distinct from that observed in rats exposed to acute thermal pain. This pattern of spinal cord neural activity in CCI rats may reflect possible radiation of neuropathic pain. In addition, the procedure of curare-induced paralysis in a separate group of CCI rats did not change the extent and patterns of metabolic activity seen in non-paralyzed CCI rats, reflecting a minimal influence of the afferent feedback from flexor motor reflexes on spinal cord metabolic activity following sciatic nerve ligation. This chronic increase in spinal cord neural activity in the absence of overt peripheral stimulation suggests a spinal cord hyperactive state and may account for behaviors suggestive of spontaneous pain in CCI rats.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

BOLD and blood volume-weighted fMRI of rat lumbar spinal cord during non-noxious and noxious electrical hindpaw stimulation

Spinal cord fMRI is a useful tool for studying spinal mechanisms of pain, hence for analgesic drug development. Its technical feasibility in both humans and rats has been demonstrated. This study investigates the reproducibility, robustness, and spatial accuracy of fMRI of lumbar spinal cord activation due to transcutaneous noxious and non-noxious electrical stimulation of the hindpaw in alpha-chloralose-anesthetized rats. Blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) and blood volume-weighted fMRI data were acquired without and with intravenous injection of ultra small superparamagnetic iron oxide particles (USPIO), respectively, using a gradient echo (GE) echo planar imaging (EPI) technique at 4.7 T. Neuronal activation in the spinal cord induced by noxious stimulation to the hindpaw (2 ms wide, 5 mA amplitude, known to activate C-fibers) can be robustly detected by both fMRI techniques with excellent reproducibility and peaked at the stimulus frequency of 40 Hz. However, both fMRI techniques were not sensitive to neuronal activation in spinal cord induced by non-noxious stimulation (0.3 ms, 1.5 mA, known only to activate A-fibers). Spatially, the fMRI signal extended approximately 5 mm in the longitudinal direction, covering L(3)-L(5) segments. In the cross-sectional direction, the highest signal change of blood volume-weighted fMRI was in the middle of the ipsilateral dorsal horn, which roughly corresponds to laminae V and VI, while the highest signal change of BOLD fMRI was in the ipsilateral dorsal surface. This study demonstrates that spinal cord fMRI can be performed in anesthetized rats reliably and reproducibly offering it as a potential tool for analgesic drug discovery.     

Enhanced formalin nociceptive responses following L5 nerve ligation in the rat reveals neuropathy-induced inflammatory hyperalgesia

The development of mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity following peripheral nerve injury is well known and a great deal of research has been directed towards understanding the mechanisms underlying these phenomena. However, there has been very little research examining if hypersensitivity to an inflammatory condition following nerve injury also develops. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to determine if hypersensitivity to an inflammatory condition produced in the formalin test develops following ligation of the L5 spinal nerve. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received tight ligation of the L5 spinal nerve or were given sham surgery. Following a 14-day recovery period, the threshold to produce a withdrawal response to a mechanical stimulus was measured using von Frey monofilaments and then formalin behavioral responses were measured. Compared to sham animals, L5 ligated animals exhibited significantly lower mechanical paw withdrawal thresholds as well as elevated and prolonged nociceptive responses during the second phase (20-60 min) of the formalin test. These results reveal enhanced inflammatory nociceptive processes following peripheral nerve damage and might provide a useful approach to study underlying neural mechanisms associated with clinical neuropathic pain syndromes.     

Brain derived nerve growth factor induces spinal noradrenergic fiber sprouting and enhances clonidine analgesia following nerve injury in rats

Many treatments for neuropathic pain activate or augment norepinephrine release in the spinal cord, yet these treatments are less effective against acute nociceptive stimuli. We previously showed in mice that peripheral nerve injury results in sprouting of spinal noradrenergic fibers, possibly reflecting the substrate for this shift in drug efficacy. Here, we tested whether such sprouting also occurs in rats after nerve injury and examined one signal for such sprouting. Ligation of L5 and L6 spinal nerves unilaterally in rats resulted in hypersensitivity to tactile stimulation of the ipsilateral paw, and sprouting of noradrenergic fibers in the dorsal horn of the lumbar spinal cord. Brain derived nerve growth factor (BDNF) content increased in L4-L6 dorsal root ganglia ipsilateral to injury and in lumbar spinal cord following nerve injury, and intrathecal infusion of BDNF antiserum prevented spinal noradrenergic sprouting. This treatment also prevented the increased analgesic efficacy of intrathecal clonidine observed after nerve injury. Intraspinal injection of BDNF in non-injured rats mimicked the sprouting of spinal noradrenergic fibers seen after nerve injury. These results suggest that increased BDNF synthesis and release drives spinal noradrenergic sprouting following nerve injury, and that this sprouting may paradoxically increase the capacity for analgesia in the setting of neuropathic pain from drugs which utilize or mimic the noradrenergic pathway.     

Correlation of functional activation in the rat spinal cord with neuronal activation detected by immunohistochemistry

The relationship between neuronal activity in the rat cervical and lumbar spinal cord was examined using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and immunohistochemistry. Neuronal activity determined by c-fos staining was greatest between L4 and L6, and C5 to C7 spinal cord segments during noxious electrical stimulation of the rat hindpaw and forepaw, respectively. Areas of activity determined by fMRI are consistent with spinal cord physiology, and are predominantly found in regions of the spinal cord associated with pain, namely the dorsal horn. Activity in the ventral region of the cord was also observed, as expected. Combined results from repeated experiments demonstrated consistent areas of activity in response to stimulation, and show a high degree of reproducibility. Good correspondence was observed between functional MRI and sites of neuronal activity determined by c-fos labeling.     

A selective increase in Fos expression in spinal dorsal horn neurons following graded thermal stimulation in rats with experimental mononeuropathy

In order to clarify the central mechanisms of thermal hyperalgesia produced by peripheral nerve injury, Fos protein-like immunoreactive (Fos-LI) cells in spinal dorsal horn neurons were studied in rats with chronic constriction nerve injury (CCI) following graded thermal stimulation of the hind paw. The graded thermal stimuli (cold: 5, 10 and 15°C, heat: 42, 46 and 54°C) were applied to the planter surface of the operated hind paw 14 days after CCI or sham operation, and the number of Fos-LI cells in the spinal dorsal horn was quantified. Many Fos-LI cells were expressed in the superficial laminae of the spinal dorsal horn both in sham-operated and CCI rats following thermal stimulation. Fos-LI cells were mainly restricted to the medial half of the superficial laminae of the spinal dorsal horn, and were sparsely distributed in the deeper laminae. The number of Fos-LI cells in the superficial laminae (laminae I–II) of the dorsal horn was significantly higher in CCI rats after stimulation at 10 and 46°C, but not at the other stimulating temperatures (5, 15, 42, and 54°C) as compared to that in sham-operated rats. In laminae III–IV, the number of Fos-LI cells was significantly higher at all stimulus temperatures in CCI rats when compared to the sham-operated rats. No distribution difference of Fos-LI cells was observed between CCI and sham-operated rats in laminae V–VI. Thus, in the spinal dorsal horn of the CCI rats, there was a selective increase in thermal stimulus-induced Fos-LI cells in the superficial dorsal horn after stimulating at near noxious threshold intensities and a non-selective increase in Fos-LI cells in laminae III-IV after both noxious and innocuous thermal stimuli. The increase of Fos-LI cells in the superficial laminae may be related to hypersensitivity to noxious stimuli while the increase of Fos-LI cells in laminae III–IV may be related to an increased sensitivity to both noxious and innocuous stimuli that leads to increased reflex activity following nerve injury.     

Pain fMRI in rat cervical spinal cord: an echo planar imaging evaluation of sensitivity of BOLD and blood volume-weighted fMRI

Objective measure of pain is valuable in drug discovery research and development of analgesics. Spinal cord is an important relay of the pain pathway, and fMRI offers an excellent opportunity to quantify pain using activation in the spinal cord induced by painful stimuli. fMRI literature of cervical spinal cord with regard to the spatial extent, in both longitudinal and cross-sectional directions, of neuronal activation induced by noxious stimulation is ambiguous. This study investigates the feasibility of developing a robust pain assay using fMRI in the cervical spinal cord in alpha-chloralose anesthetized rats subjected to transcutaneous noxious electrical stimulation of the forepaw. Blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) and blood volume (BV)-weighted fMRI data were acquired without and with intravenous injection of ultra small superparamagnetic iron oxide particles (USPIO), respectively. BOLD data were acquired by gradient-echo (GE) and spin-echo (SE) echo planar imaging (EPI), while BV-weighted fMRI data were acquired only by GE EPI. Cervical spinal cord activity was robustly detected by all three fMRI techniques. The sensitivity of the fMRI signal was highest in GE BV-weighted fMRI followed in order by GE BOLD, and SE BOLD, respectively. Spatially, the fMRI signal extended approximately 9 mm in the longitudinal direction, covering C(4)-C(8) segments, coinciding with the synapse location of afferent terminals from the stimulated site. In the cross-sectional direction, the signal change is localized predominantly to the ipsilateral dorsal region. This study demonstrates that cervical spinal cord fMRI can be performed reliably in anesthetized rats offering it as a potential tool for analgesic drug development.     

The pattern of Fos expression in the spinal dorsal horn following acute noxious mechanical stimulation of bone

Little is known of the spinal mechanisms that mediate bone nociception. The aim of this study was to determine the pattern of neuronal activation in the spinal dorsal horn following acute noxious mechanical stimulation of bone. This was achieved by examining Fos expression in the spinal dorsal horn following acute, noxious mechanical stimulation of the rat tibia. Noxious mechanical stimuli were applied by bone drilling and raising tibial intra-osseous pressure. Control experiments consisted of surgery to expose the tibia. There was a significant increase in the number of Fos-like immunoreactive (Fos-LI) nuclei in the superficial, ipsilateral dorsal horn of animals in the bone drilling and pressure groups relative to animals of the control group at spinal cord segments L3 and L4 (P < 0.05). The number of Fos-LI nuclei in the deep dorsal horn was always lower than the number in the superficial dorsal horn (significant at L3 but not L4; P < 0.05). Whilst there appeared to be a small increase in the number of Fos-LI nuclei in the ipsilateral deep dorsal horn of bone drilling and pressure groups relative to the ipsilateral deep dorsal horn control group at both L3 and L4 segments, no significant effect was observed (P > 0.05). The present study implicates the superficial dorsal horn of the spinal cord as a region of interest in studies of acute bone pain, and highlights the notion that spinal mechanisms that mediate bone nociception may be different to those that mediate nociception of cutaneous and visceral origin.     

Activity-dependent slowing of conduction velocity in uninjured L4 C fibers increases after an L5 spinal nerve injury in the rat

Growing evidence suggests that uninjured afferents may play an important role in neuropathic pain following nerve injury. The excitability of nociceptive neurons in the L4 spinal nerve appears to be enhanced following an injury to the adjacent L5 spinal nerve. In this study, we investigated whether the action-potential conduction properties of unlesioned, unmyelinated fibers are also altered. A teased-fiber technique was used to record from single C fibers from the L4 spinal nerve of the rat in vitro. Repeated electrical stimulation of the tibial nerve was used to investigate activity-dependent slowing of conduction velocity. Twin pulse stimulation at a 50 ms interpulse interval allowed investigation of supranormal conduction velocity. Blinded experiments were performed 8-10 days after sham surgery and after an L5 spinal nerve ligation (L5 SNL). Activity-dependent slowing revealed two populations of C fibers, a "nociceptor" population with a large degree of activity-dependent slowing and a "non-nociceptor" population with a smaller degree of activity-dependent slowing. Both populations showed enhanced activity-dependent slowing of conduction velocity and enhanced supranormal conduction velocities in lesioned animals compared to sham animals. Activity-dependent slowing was also enhanced after an L5 SNL in the mouse. These alterations in conduction velocity may reflect changes in expression of ion channels responsible for the membrane excitability. These data provide additional evidence that a nerve injury leads to persistent alterations in the properties of adjacent uninjured, unmyelinated fibers.     

脊髓损伤大鼠远端神经元及骨骼肌的变化

背景：目前针对脊髓损伤病灶的研究较多,而对脊髓损伤后远端神经、肌肉及运动终板三者形态结构实时变化观察和研究的文献很少。目的：观察大鼠脊髓损伤后远端肢体神经、运动终板和骨骼肌随时间推移形态学变化的自然病程。方法：将50只雌性SD大鼠随机分为对照组5只（不做处理）、假手术组10只和脊髓损伤组35只,假手术组行单纯椎板切除术,脊髓损伤组在椎板切除基础上,用横断法制成T10完全脊髓损伤模型,然后在第1,2,4,12,24周分别观察3组大鼠坐骨神经-运动终板-内侧腓肠肌的形态变化。结果与结论：①脊髓损伤组大鼠4周时部分有髓神经纤维髓鞘出现板层分离;24周时崩解髓鞘板层已模糊、碎裂髓鞘增多,薄髓与无髓神经纤维较12周时增多。②脊髓损伤组大鼠运动终板在脊髓损伤12周时明显退变突触结构与较完整突触结构并存;24周时已找不到运动终板。③脊髓损伤组大鼠内侧腓肠肌在脊髓损伤24周时,肌细胞融合,细胞核密集,融合细胞间可见大小不一空隙,结缔组织增生更加明显。结果表明大鼠在完全性横断性脊髓损伤后自然病程中,损伤平面以下周围神经、运动终板、骨骼肌的形态结构均呈规律性改变,损伤后12周时已有显著变化,24周时呈结构毁坏性改变。     

硫化氢对急性马尾神经损伤模型大鼠的神经保护作用

背景：研究发现内源性硫化氢可以作为一种新型气体信号分子,具有重要的信号传递功能和生物调节作用。目的：研究硫化氢对急性马尾神经损伤大鼠的神经保护作用。方法：将72只SD大鼠随机均分为3组,实验组、模型组咬除L4椎板,将长10 mm、厚1.0 mm、宽1.0 mm的硅胶条植入大鼠L5和L6椎管内,建立大鼠马尾神经压迫损伤模型;假手术组仅咬除L4椎板,未植入硅胶条;实验组造模前1 h腹腔注射20μmol/kg的NaHS,模型组与假手术组腹腔注射等量生理盐水。造模后12,24,48,72 h检测马尾神经组织中丙二醛和谷胱甘肽水平,同时在48 h取材进行苏木精-伊红染色和TUNEL染色。结果与结论：苏木精-伊红染色显示,假手术组马尾神经纤维致密有序,髓鞘完整,轴突无肿胀;模型组马尾神经纤维松散,脱髓鞘改变,部分轴突及髓鞘肿胀;实验组马尾神经纤维紧密,少量轴突肿胀、脱髓鞘改变。TUNEL染色显示,假手术组中脊髓和背根神经节组织中阳性细胞数量较少,模型组脊髓和背根神经节中可见大量阳性细胞,实验组阳性细胞数量显著低于模型组。假手术组、实验组丙二醛水平低于模型组（P 〉0.05, P 〉0.01）,谷胱甘肽水平高于模型组（P 〉0.05,P 〉0.01）。表明硫化氢可以降低氧化应激反应,保护急性损伤大鼠马尾神经。     

Nerve injury induces plasticity that results in spinal inhibitory effects of galanin

Galanin is a 29-amino-acid neuropeptide that has been implicated in the processes of nociception. This study examines the effect of exogenous galanin on dorsal horn neurone activity in vivo in the spinal nerve ligation (SNL) model of neuropathic pain. SNL rats but not naive or sham-operated rats exhibited behaviour indicative of allodynia. In anaesthetized rats, extracellular recordings were made from individual convergent dorsal horn neurones following stimulation of peripheral receptive fields electrically or with natural (innocuous mechanical, noxious mechanical and noxious thermal) stimuli. Spinal administration of galanin (0.5-50 microg) caused a slight facilitation of the neuronal responses to natural and electrical stimuli in naive rats and up to a 65% inhibition of neuronal responses in sham-operated rats following 50 microg galanin. In contrast, there was a marked inhibition of up to 80% of responses to both natural and electrical stimuli in SNL rats following spinal galanin administration. These results suggest that following peripheral nerve injury, there is plasticity in the levels of galanin and/or its receptors at spinal cord level so that the effect of exogenous galanin favours inhibitory function.     

坐骨神经损伤后脊髓肝细胞生长因子mRNA及蛋白的表达

目的 研究坐骨神经损伤后再生过程中脊髓肝细胞生长因子（HGF）mRNA和蛋白的表达及经时变化规律，探讨周围神经损伤的机制。方法 采用原位杂交及免疫组化技术检测坐骨神经损伤后再生过程中脊髓HGF的mRNA及蛋白的表达。结果 大鼠坐骨神经损伤模型损伤侧的神经细胞胞质颗粒阳性染色强于未损伤侧；神经损伤后第3，7和14天，感觉。运动和副交感神经元内杂交信号明显增强，以第7天的变化最为显著。HGF蛋白的表达均于坐骨神经损伤后第1周开始增强，第2周时达峰值，然后下降。结论 周围神经损伤后，内源性HGF mRNA和蛋白表达增强，对神经元具有保护作用。     

fMRI investigation of the effect of local and systemic lidocaine on noxious electrical stimulation-induced activation in spinal cord

Spinal cord fMRI offers an excellent opportunity to quantify nociception using neuronal activation induced by painful stimuli. Measurement of the magnitude of stimulation-induced activation, and its suppression with analgesics can provide objective measures of pain and efficacy of analgesics. This study investigates the feasibility of using spinal cord fMRI in anesthetized rats as a pain assay to test the analgesic effect of locally and systemically administered lidocaine. Blood volume (BV)-weighted fMRI signal acquired after intravenous injection of ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide (USPIO) particles was used as an indirect readout of the neuronal activity. Transcutaneous noxious electrical stimulation was used as the pain model. BV-weighted fMRI signal could be robustly quantified on a run-by-run basis, opening the possibility of measuring pharmacodynamics (PD) of the analgesics with a temporal resolution of 2 min. Local administration of lidocaine was shown to ablate all stimulation-induced fMRI signals by the total blockage of peripheral nerve transmission, while the analgesic effect of systemically administered lidocaine was robustly detected after intravenous infusion of 3 mg/kg, which is similar to clinical dosage for human. This study establishes spinal cord fMRI as a viable assay for analgesics. With respect to the mode of action of lidocaine, this study suggests that systemic lidocaine, which is clinically used for the treatment of neuropathic pain, and believed to only block the peripheral nerve transmission of abnormal neural activity (ectopic discharge) originating from the damaged peripheral nerves, also blocks the peripheral nerve transmission of normal neural activity induced by transcutaneous noxious electrical stimulation.     

Tactile-associated recruitment of the cervical cord is altered in patients with multiple sclerosis

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies of the brain have shown that cortical reorganization might contribute to a more favourable clinical outcome of multiple sclerosis (MS). In order to assess whether fMRI changes can also be detected in the spinal cord from patients with MS, and to investigate their nature and extent, twenty-five patients and 12 matched healthy controls were scanned during a tactile stimulation of the palm of the right hand. The task-related mean signal change was computed for all activated voxels within the cervical cord and, separately, in the right and left anterior, right and left posterior, and middle cervical cord from C5 to C8. Cord lesion number, brain T2-weighted lesion load, gray matter mean diffusivity (MD), and normal appearing white matter MD and fractional anisotropy were also measured. One control and one patient were excluded prior to fMRI analysis due to motion artifacts. The task-related signal change of all cord activated voxels was 3.2% (SD=0.8) for controls and 3.9% (SD=0.9) for MS patients (p=0.02). Compared with controls, MS patients showed a higher signal change in the following cord sections: right anterior at C5 (p=0.05), right anterior (p=0.04) and posterior (p=0.04) at C6, and middle at C6 (p=0.03) and C7/C8 (p=0.01). MS patients showed a more frequent cord activity in the left posterior cervical cord at C5/C6 than controls (p=0.02). No significant correlation was found between cord fMRI changes and brain structural MRI metrics. In MS patients, the over-recruitment of the ipsilateral posterior cervical cord associated to a reduced functional lateralization suggests an abnormal function of the spinal relay interneurons.     

Effects of Epidural Spinal Cord Stimulation and Treadmill Training on Locomotion Function and Ultrastructure of Spinal Cord Anterior Horn after Moderate Spinal Cord Injury in Rats

Objective:To investigate the effects of epidural spinal cord stimulation (ESCS) and treadmill training on the locomotion function and ultrastructure of spinal cord anterior horn after moderate spinal cord injury in rats.Method:Nine adult female Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly distributed into three groups: ①spinal cord injury group (SI, n=3). ②spinal cord injury plus ESCS group (SE, n=3). ③spinal cord injury plus treadmill training group (TT, n=3). All rats received a moderate spinal cord injury surgery. Four weeks after surgery, rats in SE group received an electrode implantation procedure, with the electrode field covering spinal cord segments L2—S1. Four weeks after electrode implantation, rats received subthreshold ESCS for 30 min/d. Rats in TT group received 4cm/s treadmill training for 30min/d. Rats in SI group received no intervention, as a control group. All procedures in these three groups lasted four weeks.The open field Basso,Beattie and Bresnahan(BBB) scale was used before and after intervention to evaluate rats′ hindlimb motor function. Result:After four weeks intervention, rats in TT group improved their open field locomotion scores to 20. In contrast, no significant improvement was observed in groups SI and SE. The morphology of synapses and neurons were similar regardless of whether rats had undergone ESCS, treadmill training or not. Conclusion:ESCS alone was not sufficient to improve the walking ability of spinal cord injured rats. ESCS or treadmill training alone might not contribute to the changes of ultrastructure in anterior horn of spinal cord that underlie the recovery of walking ability. Further research is needed to understand the contributions of combination of ESCS and treadmill training to the rehabilitation of spinal cord injured rats.     

Effects of repetitive magnetic stimulation on motor function and GAP43 and 5-HT expression in rats with spinal cord injury

ObjectivesSpinal cord injury (SCI) is a disabling central nervous system disorder. This study aimed to explore the effects of repetitive trans-spinal magnetic stimulation (rTSMS) of different spinal cord segments on movement function and growth-associated protein-43 (GAP43) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) expression in rats after acute SCI and to preliminarily discuss the optimal rTSMS treatment site to provide a theoretical foundation and experimental evidence for clinical application of rTSMS in SCI.MethodsA rat T10 laminectomy SCI model produced by transient application of an aneurysm clip was used in the study. The rats were divided into group A (sham surgery), group B (acute SCI without stimulation), group C (T6 segment stimulation), group D (T10 segment stimulation), and group E (L2 segment stimulation).ResultsIn vivo magnetic stimulation protected motor function, alleviated myelin sheath damage, decreased NgR and Nogo-A expression levels, increased GAP43 and 5-HT expression levels, and inhibited terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling-positive cells and apoptosis-related protein expression in rats at 8 weeks after the surgery.ConclusionsThis study suggests that rTSMS can promote GAP43 and 5-HT expression and axonal regeneration in the spinal cord, which is beneficial to motor function recovery after acute SCI.