反复呼吸道感染82例病因分析

目的 进一步提高反复呼吸道感染病因的认识.方法 回顾分析2004年4月至2006年6月收住院的反复呼吸道感染患儿82例,其中男55例,女27例;年龄7个月～14岁.除外先天性心脏病和腭裂患儿.结果 反复呼吸道感染中反复上呼吸道感染30例,反复肺炎或下呼吸道感染52例.在30例反复上呼吸道感染的患儿中,主要为慢性炎症,其中慢性扁桃体炎14例,慢性鼻窦炎8例,胃食管反流2例,原因不明6例.2例慢性鼻窦炎患儿存在免疫缺陷病(IgG4缺陷1例,选择性IgA缺乏1例).在52例反复肺炎的患儿中,原发免疫缺陷病13例,支气管异物8例,支气管及肺先天结构异常者5例,胃食管反流2例,纤毛不动综合征6例,肺炎感染后8例(其中6例合并支气管扩张),合并哮喘5例.原因不明5例.反复肺炎的患儿中合并支气管扩张症者18例(34.6%).结论 反复上呼吸道感染和反复肺炎的病因截然不同,反复上呼吸道感染多为慢性病灶所致,合并基础疾病者少,而反复肺炎多有基础疾病存在,支气管扩张的发生率高.因此在诊断反复呼吸道感染时一定要区分这两类程度不同的反复呼吸道感染.     

儿童闭塞性细支气管炎28例临床分析

目的：总结儿童闭塞性细支气管炎（BO）的临床特点,以期提高临床医师对儿童BO的认识。方法：回顾性分析2007年7月至2012年4月经临床诊断为BO的28例住院患儿的临床资料,并随访其预后。结果：所有患儿均表现有反复喘息及咳嗽。感染后闭塞性细支气管炎（PIBO）23例,其中腺病毒肺炎12例,麻疹病毒肺炎和流感病毒A肺炎各2例,肺炎支原体肺炎、腺病毒并肺炎支原体肺炎、呼吸道合胞病毒并副流感病毒3肺炎、肺结核各1例,病原不明3例;非感染性因素导致BO 3例,即Steven-Johnson 综合征、副肿瘤天疱疮、造血干细胞移植后发生BO各1例;病因不明2例。28例胸部HRCT结果示充气不均25例,马赛克灌注征21例,支气管壁增厚15例,支气管扩张12例,气体潴留征6例。21例行肺功能检查,均提示有阻塞性通气功能障碍。18例行舒张试验,17例阴性。所有患儿均使用糖皮质激素治疗,24例口服小剂量阿奇霉素治疗。住院期间死亡1例,18例随访4个月~?4年7个月,临床表现好转12例,无好转5例,死亡1例。结论：下呼吸道感染是儿童BO最常见病因,腺病毒是主要感染病原;BO临床上主要表现为反复喘息、咳嗽,但无特异性;胸部HRCT可显示BO较特征性征象,是BO诊断和病情随访的重要指标;BO肺功能特异性地表现为不可逆的阻塞性通气功能障碍;糖皮质激素、阿奇霉素是可能有效的治疗药物;儿童BO总体预后不好,早期诊断治疗、避免反复呼吸道感染有望改善儿童BO预后。     

儿童支气管扩张症172例临床研究

目的 探讨儿童支气管扩张症临床表现、 影像学及肺功能方面特点, 分析病因构成, 了解疾病预后。方法 回顾性总结 172 例支气管扩张症患儿的临床表现、 影像学、 肺功能特点及病因, 对部分患儿进行随访。结果 支气管扩张症患儿临床主要表现为咳嗽、咯痰、生长发育受限、杵状指等。胸部X线诊断支气管扩张症的检出阳性率（4.42%）显著低于高分辨率CT（HRCT）的100%。存在免疫缺陷、闭塞性细支气管炎及原发性纤毛运动障碍的患儿在HRCT中弥漫性支气管扩张较其他病因更显著（P＜0.05）。76.92%的患儿肺功能异常。65.70%的患儿可以发现潜在病因,以肺部感染（31.40%）为主。门诊随访患儿FEV1%随病程的延长以每年1.28%的速度下降。其中1例临床症状、HRCT、肺功能均有好转。结论 儿童支气管扩张症临床表现没有明显特异性。大部分患儿可以发现潜在病因,以肺部感染最为常见。对于临床怀疑支气管扩张症的患儿应尽早进行HRCT检查,积极寻找潜在病因。支气管扩张症患儿的肺功能可随着病程的进展缓慢下降。部分患儿在临床症状、HRCT及肺功能上可有好转。     

闭塞性细支气管炎5例临床分析

目的 了解闭塞性细支气管炎(BO)的临床特征,总结BO的诊治经验.方法 对2008年6月至2010年12月临床诊断BO的5例患儿临床特点、影像学、治疗及转归进行总结并结合文献进行分析.结果 5例患儿中,2例为Steven-Johnson综合征(SJS)后,另3例为重症肺炎后.3例重症肺炎后BO患儿中,1例痰分离出腺病毒,1例3次痰培养均为肺炎克雷伯杆菌,而2例患儿的肺泡盥洗液培养均阴性;另1例多次痰培养均为鲍曼不动杆菌,其肺泡盥洗液培养为产ESBL-大肠埃希菌.5例患儿均有持续咳嗽、喘息症状,均有三凹症.3例重症肺炎后BO患儿的病程中均有心力衰竭,其中2例有呼吸衰竭,需机械通气.5例患儿起病后均有反复下呼吸道感染.5例肺CT均提示小气道病变,其中2例重症肺炎后BO患儿同时伴支气管扩张,1例还伴肺不张.4例BO患儿行纤维支气管镜检查,均提示支气管内膜炎症.5例BO患儿均使用泼尼松、阿奇霉素口服治疗,治疗过程中仍有症状持续,无死亡病例.结论 BO患儿临床以持续咳嗽、喘息为特点,肺CT以小气道病变为特点,易发生反复下呼吸道感染.目前治疗以激素为主,疗效不确定.     

反复呼吸道感染儿童支气管粘膜纤毛结构研究

为探索儿童反复呼吸道感染(RRTI)与下呼吸道粘膜纤毛结构异常的关系 ,以及RRTI患儿下呼吸道粘膜纤毛结构异常的发生率 ,并比较原发性和继发性纤毛异常的不同超微结构表现 ,对符合RRTI诊断标准住院患儿进行支气管粘膜活检 ,电镜观察其纤毛超微结构。结果显示 ,47例RRTIs患儿中支气管纤毛柱状上皮细胞结构异常38例(80.9%) ,其中22例(46.8%)为纤毛超微结构异常 ,16例(34.1%)为早期鳞状上皮化生 ;支气管粘膜结构正常9例 (19.1% )。结合临床 ,11例(23.4%)初步诊断为原发纤毛运动障碍 ,其中2例为Kartagener综合征 ;27例(57.4%)诊断为继发性纤毛上皮结构损害。在观察到的8种纤毛超微结构异常表现中 ,原发性和继发性患儿的发生率存在一定差别 ,但无显著统计学差异(P>0.05)。提示下呼吸道纤毛结构异常是儿童RRTIs的病因之一 ,约半数患儿存在支气管纤毛结构异常 ;在RRTIs患儿中大多数纤毛上皮细胞损伤为继发性 ,但RRTIs患儿中原发纤毛运动障碍发病率明显高于人群发病率     

肺炎支原体及衣原体肺炎致支气管扩张27例临床分析

目的探讨肺炎支原体(MP)及衣原体肺炎(CP)致儿童支气管扩张的临床特征、治疗及预后。方法回顾性分析27例高分辨CT提示有支气管扩张的MP、CP感染肺炎患儿的临床资料。结果 MP及CP感染肺炎患儿的支气管扩张发生率为0.56%。27例患儿的平均年龄(75.4±52.7)月。27例(100%)患儿均有咳嗽,发热19例(70.4%),气促和三凹征10例(37%),肺部湿罗音20例(74%);MP-IgM阳性16例(69.6%),CP-IgM阳性5例(18.5%),两者同时阳性6例(22.2%);合并其他病原体感染8例(29.6%),其中细菌感染6例。影像学表现弥漫性支扩13例(48.1%),局限性支扩14例(51.9%);支气管镜检查提示内膜炎症,黏膜肿胀,部分糜烂;合并黏膜滤泡增生16例(66.7%),短柱状痰栓形成5例(20.8%),包括1例塑形性支气管炎形成。患儿均使用大环内酯类抗生素治疗,10例(37%)合用甲泼尼龙,3例(11.1%)合用丙种球蛋白,20例(74%)联用其他类抗生素;平均住院时间(12±4.3)d。23例在4个月内支气管扩张征象消失,2例在9~15个月仍有支气管扩张,并有反复肺炎史。结论 MP、CP感染肺炎可导致急性支气管扩张,大部分患儿经有效治疗后可恢复。     

儿童肺炎支原体肺炎合并肺不张发病率及预后研究

探讨肺炎支原体肺炎合并肺不张患儿转归、应用纤维支气管镜灌洗治疗的时机及肺炎支原体肺炎后闭塞性细支气管炎的发病率。方法　回顾分析北京儿童医院2006年5月至2007年5月期间1166例住院治疗的肺炎支原体肺炎患儿临床资料,其中117例合并肺不张,出院后1.0～1.4年复查胸部高分辨CT（HRCT）及肺功能,接受随访者共36例。结果　（1）住院患儿中肺炎支原体肺炎合并肺不张的发病率为10.03%。（2）随访时,36例肺不张患儿胸部HRCT检测仍异常者23例,占随访患儿总数的63.89%。其中马赛克征9例次、支气管扩张12例次、支气管壁增厚11例次、血管细少2例次、小结节或树芽征3例次、黏液栓1例次、单侧透明肺1例次、条索状不张10例次。（3）纤维支气管镜灌洗治疗在病程 < 20 d与病程≥20 d两组比较,差异有统计学意义（P < 0.05）。（4）随访27例患儿肺功能,阻塞性通气功能障碍16例,混合性通气功能障碍,以阻塞为主1例。（5）在随访的36例肺不张患儿中,临床诊断闭塞性细支气管炎9例,占25%（9/36）。结论　肺炎支原体肺炎住院患儿合并肺不张的发病率10.03%;远期随访发现肺炎支原体肺炎后肺部后遗症主要为支气管扩张、闭塞性细支气管炎。早期行纤维支气管镜灌洗治疗,可能会减少肺部后遗症的发生;肺功能随访,提示肺炎支原体肺炎感染后部分患儿存在阻塞性通气功能障碍。     

闭塞性细支气管炎7例

目的分析小儿闭塞性细支气管炎(BO)的临床特点。方法回顾性分析本院呼吸科2004年10月-2009年9月诊断为BO的7例患儿的临床表现、胸部X线及高分辨率CT(HRCT)、病原学、肺功能及治疗和转归等。结果 7例患儿均表现为呼吸道感染后慢性咳喘、气促。病程1.5个月～7 a。查体:双肺均可闻及湿性啰音或喘鸣音。X线胸片:双肺纹理增粗或肺炎表现。肺部HRCT均呈现Mosaic灌注征,其中支气管扩张1例。肺功能:5例均为阻塞性通气功能障碍,舒张试验阴性。病原学:5例发病前患麻疹肺炎,1例患肺炎支原体肺炎,1例患肺炎腺病毒肺炎并真菌感染。支气管镜:2例无特殊表现。治疗及转归:1例有明显支气管扩张放弃治疗,1例因治疗过程中出现支气管扩张而放弃治疗,余5例患儿用激素或加服小剂量阿奇霉素,病情均有好转。结论BO的临床表现以慢性咳嗽、喘息为特点,肺部HRCT呈现特异的Mosaic灌注征,肺炎支原体、腺病毒尤其是麻疹病毒感染后可继发BO,肺功能为阻塞性通气功能障碍。BO的诊断主要依据典型的临床表现、肺部HRCT和肺功能检查。     

儿童闭塞性细支气管炎42例临床分析

目的 探讨儿童闭塞性细支气管炎的临床特点.方法对北京儿童医院2001年4月-2007年8月诊断闭塞性细支气管炎的42例患儿进行分析,内容包括患儿年龄、性别、临床表现、病因、肺功能改变、影像学改变、治疗及随访预后等方面.结果 42例患儿(男31例,女11例)诊断时年龄最小的7个月,最大的12岁2个月,均以持续咳嗽、喘息为主要表现.肺部体征有喘鸣音及湿性啰音.病因为感染后32例(76.2%),其中考虑为腺病毒肺炎者8例(占感染后闭塞性细支气管炎的25%),考虑为麻疹肺炎者7例(占感染后闭塞性细支气管炎的21.9%),考虑为呼吸道合胞病毒感染者2例(占感染后闭塞性细支气管炎的6.2%).病因为Steven-Johnson综合征的4例(9.5%).骨髓移植后1例(2.4%).肺功能表现为小气道阻塞性通气功能障碍35例(89.7%),混合性通气功能障碍4例(10.3%).肺CT有典型的马赛克灌注征者34例(81.0%),支气管扩张14例(33.3%),支气管壁增厚14例(33.3%),肺不张4例(9.5%),合并Swyer-James综合征2例(4.8%).所有患儿均予皮质醇激素、小剂量红霉素或阿奇霉素口服治疗,辅以糖皮质激素和支气管扩张剂吸入,或白三烯受体拮抗剂口服治疗.随访1个月至5年,除2例临床表现及影像检查、肺功能有一定程度好转外,其余患儿均有不同程度的加重,死亡1例.结论儿童闭塞性细支气管炎多为感染后起病,其特征性的临床、影像学和肺功能表现基本可以确定诊断.该病预后不佳.     

闭塞性细支气管炎发病机制研究进展

正闭塞性细支气管炎(bronchiolitis obliterans,BO)是由多种因素引起的细支气管炎性损伤所致的慢性气流阻塞性综合征,1901年由德国病理学家首次报告~([1])。BO主要表现为反复或慢性持续性咳喘及呼吸困难、运动耐量降低及对支气管舒张剂不敏感等。临床上常见病因包括感染、器官移植、自身免疫性疾病、有毒物质或污染物的吸入、胃食管反流等~([2-3]),由器官移植术后并发的BO又称BO综合征(bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome,BOS)。BO属于肺部罕见疾病,但近年来随着高分辨率CT的广泛应用,BO的报道病例数逐渐增     

Paediatric bronchiectasis in the twenty-first century: experience of a tertiary children's hospital in New Zealand

OBJECTIVE: Despite its decline in developed countries, bronchiectasis appeared to be a common diagnosis in Auckland, New Zealand children. The aims of this study were: to document the number of children in Auckland with bronchiectasis, their severity, clinical characteristics and possible aetiologies; to assess whether there was a relationship between ethnicity and poverty; and to estimate a crude bronchiectasis prevalence rate for New Zealand. METHODS: A retrospective review of the case histories of all children attending a tertiary children's hospital in Auckland with bronchiectasis diagnosed by high-resolution chest computed tomography (CT) scan, during the period 1998-2000 was undertaken. Data collected included patient demographics, number of hospitalizations pre- and post-diagnosis, lung function tests, radiology and investigations. The New Zealand deprivation 1996 index was applied to the data to obtain a measure of socio-economic status. RESULTS: Bronchiectasis was found to be common, with an estimated prevalence of approximately one in 6000 in the Auckland paediatric population. It was disproportionately more common in the Pacific Island and Maori children. In Pacific Island children, bronchiectasis not caused by cystic fibrosis was nearly twice as common in the general population than cystic fibrosis. Socio-economic deprivation and low immunization rates may be significant contributing factors. The bronchiectasis seen was extensive. Ninety-three percent had bilateral disease and 64% had involvement of four or more lobes on chest CT scan. A wide range of comorbidities and underlying aetiologies were evident. CONCLUSIONS: Paediatric bronchiectasis in Auckland, New Zealand, is common but underresourced. Only the most severe cases are being recognized, providing a significant challenge for paediatric health professionals.     

Computed tomography scan assessment of lung disease in primary immunodeficiencies

A wide spectrum of lung disease can complicate primary immunodeficiencies and early recognition influences management and prognosis. Computed tomography (CT) especially high resolution computed tomography (HRCT) has been shown to detect lung disease in adult immunodeficient patients often when the chest radiograph (CXR) is normal, but this has not been studied in children. Twenty-five CT scans [10 HRCT] and CXRs were reviewed in 23 children [14 male, 9 female] with primary immunodeficiency. Eighteen [72%] of the CT scans were abnormal, bronchiectasis being the commonest finding present in eight CT scans in patients with antibody deficiency. In eight cases CT scan revealed changes not seen on CXR (bronchiectasis;interstitial changes; small parenchymal nodules; air trapping;and a small upper lobe cyst) which influenced treatment in six cases. Conclusion CT scans have a valuable role in assessing lung disease in children with primary immunodeficiencies and will detect important changes not visible on CXR. Received: 9 December 1997 / Accepted in revised form: 3 June 1998     

High-resolution computed tomography in young patients with cystic fibrosis: distribution of abnormalities and correlation with pulmonary function tests

Objective

To assess pulmonary abnormalities detected by high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) in young children with cystic fibrosis (CF) and mild to moderate lung disease.

Study design

High-resolution computed tomography was performed in 60 children, 6 to 10 years old, with mild to moderate lung disease (forced expiratory volume in 1 minute [FEV₁], 52-137; mean, 102; SD, 15% predicted). HRCTs were scored by using a system that evaluates each lobe for severity and extent of CF lung disease. Findings of CF lung disease were tabulated in all subjects and in a subgroup with normal pulmonary function tests. HRCT scores were correlated with FEV₁, forced vital capacity (FVC), and forced expiratory flow between 25% and 75% of expired vital capacity (FEF_25-75) in 57 patients.

Results

Bronchiectasis was present in 35% of subjects, mucous plugging in 15%, and air trapping in 63%. No abnormality was detected in 25%. In 37 subjects with FEV₁, FVC, and FEF_25-75 >85% predicted, bronchiectasis was present in 30%. In 17% of these subjects, bronchiectasis was seen in ≥4 lobes. Correlations between HRCT scores and FEV₁ were significant and showed fair to moderate correlation (r = 0.36-0.46).

Conclusions

High-resolution computed tomography demonstrated a broad range of pulmonary abnormalities in young patients with CF with mild to moderate lung disease. In this study, abnormalities, including bronchiectasis, were common in young children with CF and normal pulmonary function tests.     

High torquetenovirus loads are correlated with bronchiectasis and peripheral airflow limitation in children

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to evaluate the prevalence of torquetenovirus (TTV) infection in a group of children with recurrent lower respiratory tract infections and radiologic evidence of bronchiectasis. Correlations between TTV loads and severity of bronchiectasis and between TTV loads and lung function were evaluated. METHODS: In 38 subjects, high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) and plasma tests for TTV detection and quantification were done. In 21/38 subjects, spirometry was also performed. RESULTS: TTV was found in 31/38 (81.6%) patients. The correlation between TTV loads and severity of bronchiectasis was statistically significant (r = 0.548; P = 0.01). TTV loads showed inverse correlation with FEF25-75% (r = -0.541; P = 0.011), and FEF25-75%/FVC (r = -0.512; P = 0.018). Inverse correlation was found also between severity of bronchiectasis and functional lung parameters: FEF25-75% (r = -0.635; P = 0.002), FEV1/FVC (r = -0.541; P = 0.011), and FEF25-75%/FVC (r = -0.645; P = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated the high prevalence of TTV infection in children with bronchiectasis. Moreover, we have shown a significant correlation between TTV loads and airflow limitation within the peripheral airways, as well as between severity of bronchiectasis and decrease of lung function.     

New Zealand national incidence of bronchiectasis "too high" for a developed country.

AIMS: To prospectively estimate the incidence of bronchiectasis among New Zealand (NZ) children, to consider aetiology and severity, and to evaluate regional and ethnic variation. Methodology: NZ paediatricians were surveyed monthly for new cases of bronchiectasis during 2001 and 2002 via the NZ paediatric surveillance unit (with coverage of >94% of NZ paediatricians). Notified cases had their computed tomography scans reviewed and scored for severity. Confirmed cases were followed up by postal questionnaire one year after diagnosis. Demographic, aetiological, and severity data were collected. RESULTS: Ninety nine notifications were received. Sixty five cases were confirmed. An overall incidence of 3.7 per 100,000 under 15 year old children per year was estimated. Incidence was highest in Pacific children at 17.8 compared with 4.8 in Maori, 1.5 in NZ European, and 2.4 other per 100,000 per year. Incidence varied significantly by region. The median age at diagnosis was 5.2 years; the majority had symptoms for more than two years. Eighty three per cent had bilateral disease, with a median of three lobes affected, mean FEV1 of 77% predicted, and modified Bhalla HRCT score of 18. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of bronchiectasis is high in NZ children, nearly twice the rate for cystic fibrosis and seven times that of Finland, the only other country reporting a childhood national rate. Incidence varied substantially between ethnicities. Most cases developed disease in early childhood and had delayed diagnosis.     

New Zealand national incidence of bronchiectasis "too high" for a developed country

Aims: To prospectively estimate the incidence of bronchiectasis among New Zealand (NZ) children, to consider aetiology and severity, and to evaluate regional and ethnic variation. Methodology: NZ paediatricians were surveyed monthly for new cases of bronchiectasis during 2001 and 2002 via the NZ paediatric surveillance unit (with coverage of >94% of NZ paediatricians). Notified cases had their computed tomography scans reviewed and scored for severity. Confirmed cases were followed up by postal questionnaire one year after diagnosis. Demographic, aetiological, and severity data were collected. Results: Ninety nine notifications were received. Sixty five cases were confirmed. An overall incidence of 3.7 per 100 000 under 15 year old children per year was estimated. Incidence was highest in Pacific children at 17.8 compared with 4.8 in Maori, 1.5 in NZ European, and 2.4 other per 100 000 per year. Incidence varied significantly by region. The median age at diagnosis was 5.2 years; the majority had symptoms for more than two years. Eighty three per cent had bilateral disease, with a median of three lobes affected, mean FEV1 of 77% predicted, and modified Bhalla HRCT score of 18. Conclusions: The incidence of bronchiectasis is high in NZ children, nearly twice the rate for cystic fibrosis and seven times that of Finland, the only other country reporting a childhood national rate. Incidence varied substantially between ethnicities. Most cases developed disease in early childhood and had delayed diagnosis.     

Impact of underlying cause of bronchiectasis on clinical outcome: A comparative study on CF and Non-CF bronchiectasis in Egyptian children

Background

Bronchiectasis represents an important cause of chronic lung disease in children in developing countries and continues to be one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality with worsening quality of life in these children.

Bronchiectasis: the consequence of late diagnosis in chronic respiratory symptoms

Bronchiectasis is still common among some developing countrieslike Turkey. The aim of this study was to document the numberof children with non-cystic fibrosis (CF) bronchiectasis, toevaluate the risk factors and to emphasize early diagnosis andtreatment. All children, except those diagnosed with CF, withbronchiectasis established by chest radiogram, bronchographyand/or computed tomography or biopsy material, were retrospectivelyreviewed. They were tested for serum total eosinophil count,nasal smear, serum levels of immunoglobulins A, G, M, E, andserum alpha-1 antitrypsin level. Pulmonary function tests, rigidbronchoscopy, nasal biopsy, lung scintigraphy, and echocardiogramwere also performed. There were 204 patients whose most commonpresenting symptoms were cough, sputum expectoration, and dyspnea.Bronchiectasis was present mostly in the left lower lobe. Thecause could not be determined in 49 per cent of patients. Amongthe identified causes, infection was present in most patients,followed by asthma, primary ciliary dyskinesia, congenital immunedeficiency, and foreign body aspiration. It is possible to preventbronchiectasis in children with vaccinations and improved nutritionin developing countries. Early diagnosis and treatment willincrease the quality of life and survival of patients with bronchiectasis,which has irreversible and progressive complications if untreated.     

Pediatric vs adult pulmonary tuberculosis: A retrospective computed tomography study

AIM: To compare the manifestations of chest tuberculosis (TB) in pediatric and adult patients based on contrast enhanced computed tomography of chest.METHODS: This was a retrospective study consisting of 152 patients of chest TB including 48 children and 104 adults who had undergone contrast enhanced computed tomography of chest prior to treatment. The patterns and severity of parenchymal, mediastinal and pleural manifestations were analyzed and compared among different age groups.RESULTS: Parenchymal changes observed include consolidation, air space nodules, miliary TB, cavitation, bronchiectasis and fibrosis and these were noted in 60% of children, 71% of adolescents and 76.9% of adults. These changes were more common in right upper lobe in all age groups. There was no significant difference in the frequency of these changes (except nodules) in different age groups. Centrilobular nodules were seen less commonly in children less than 10 years (P = 0.028). Pleural effusion was noted in 28 (18.42%) patients and pericardial effusion in 8 (5.3%) patients. No significant difference in the serosal involvement is seen among children and adults. Mediastinal adenopathy was seen 70% of children, 76.3% adolescents and 76.9% of adults and paratracheal nodes were seen most frequently. Nodes had similar features (except matting) among all age groups. Matting of nodes was seen more commonly in children (P = 0.014).CONCLUSION: Pediatric chest tuberculosis can have severe parenchymal lesions and nodal involvement similar to adults. The destructive lung changes observed in children needs immediate attention in view of the longer life span they have and hence in formulating optimal treatment strategies.     

Chest imaging findings of chronic respiratory disease in HIV-infected adolescents on combined anti retro viral therapy

Early treatment with combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) has improved survival of children perinatally infected with HIV into adolescence. This population is at risk of long term complications related to HIV infection, particularly chronic respiratory disease. Limited data on chest imaging findings in HIV-infected adolescents, suggest that the predominant disease is of small and large airways: predominantly bronchiolitis obliterans or bronchiectasis. Single cases of emphysema have been reported. Lung fibrosis, lymphocytic interstitial pneumonitis, post tuberculous apical fibrocystic changes and malignancies do not feature in this population. Chest radiograph (CXR) is easily accessible and widely used, especially in resource limited settings, such as sub Saharan Africa, where the greatest burden of HIV disease occurs. Lung ultrasound has been described for the diagnosis of pneumonia in children, pulmonary oedema and interstitial lung disease [1], [2], [3]. The use of this modality in chronic respiratory disease in adolescents where the predominant finding is small airway disease and bronchiectasis has however not been described. CXR is useful to evaluate structural/post infective changes, parenchymal opacification and nodules, hyperinflation or extensive bronchiectasis. CXR however, is inadequate for diagnosing small airway disease, for which high resolution computed tomography (HRCT) is the modality of choice. Where available, low dose HRCT should be used early in the course of symptomatic disease in adolescents and for follow up in children who are non responsive to treatment or clinically deteriorating.This article provides a pictorial review of the spectrum of CXR and HRCT imaging findings of chronic pulmonary disease in perinatally HIV-infected adolescents on cART and guidelines for imaging.