Microvasculature of the avian eye: Studies on the eye of the duckling with microcorrosion casting,scanning electron microscopy,and stereology

The microvasculature of the eye of the duckling was studied with microcorrosion casting, scanning electron microscopy, and stereology. Most blood to the eyeball first passes through the arterial ophthalmic rete mirabile, a complex of small arteries which intermixes with a similar complex of veins (venous ophthalmic rete mirabile) at the ventrotemporal angle of the eye. The present study reveals the ultrastructural anatomy and the compact, three-dimensional arrangement of vessels in this rete, which had been shown by previous investigators to function as a countercurrent heat exchanger. Vessels from this rete include the supraorbital and infraorbital arteries, which supply the eyeball anteriorly, and the ophthalmotemporal artery, which supplies the eyeball posteriorly. The internal ophthalmic and ethmoidal arteries, branches of the cerebral carotid artery, anastomose with the ophthalmotemporal artery posteriorly. Blood is distributed to the eyeball anteriorly by two ring arteries: the iridial ring artery, which circumscribes the iris and which receives blood from the long ciliary and infraorbital arteries; and the more peripheral, ciliary ring artery, which receives blood mostly from the infraorbital and ethmoidal arteries. Within the iris is a dense, freely anastomosing bed of capillaries which extends to the edge of the pupil and then loops back beneath the ciliary body. The vasculature of the ciliary body consists of radially arranged plates of anastomosing capillaries of irregular bore which mimic the contours of that organ, but permit changes in pupil diameter. The present study demonstrates the three-dimensional anatomy of the very dense capillary net of the choriocapillaris deep to the retina and the capillary mass of the pecten, and thus supports the finding of earlier investigators that nutrients diffusing from these structures nourish the avascular retina. The pecten consists of a pleated sheet of freely anastomosing capillaries which protrudes into the vitreous body from near the optic nerve. The choriocapillaris and the pecten are supplied by branches of the ophthalmotemporal artery: the former by numerous short posterior ciliary arteries, the latter by two or three arteries which further divide into one or two smaller vessels for each of its folds. Veins of the choroid layer at the periphery of the anterior surface of the eyeball, and to some extent on its lateral walls, are revealed by the corrosion-casting technique as unusual, flattened vessels of large caliber which lie in closely spaced parallel arrays. The large surface area thus created may function in heat dissipation. These veins join with others from the choriocapillaris to form a large dorsal and a large ventral posterior ciliary vein. Blood from the pecten and from the choriocapillaris in the nasal, central, and temporal regions of the posterior surface of the eyeball is drained by the ophthalmotemporal vein. Vascular casts of veins are often distinguishable from those of arteries by bore morphology and by the presence of valves, but also by the shapes of endothelial nuclear depressions left in the plastic. The high resolution obtained with the present technique reveals details of microvasculature and of vessel distribution in the avian eye not previously described. Names for some of these vessels are suggested.     

A new look at the blood supply of the retro-ocular space. Three-dimensional analysis of the arterial pattern of the posterior ciliary artery.

A study of the arterial architecture of the orbit, especially the ophthalmic artery and the course of the posterior ciliary artery in the retroocular space, was carried out in 198 cadavers by three-dimensional arteriographic analysis. The posterior ciliary arteries were classified into three types: lateral posterior ciliary, medial posterior ciliary, and accessory posterior ciliary arteries. Both the lateral and medial posterior ciliary arteries reach the eyeball in three ways: (1) they run antero-inferiorly in a winding course to the posterior margin of the eyeball, then shift upward vertically at a 60-90 degree angle and reach the eyeball, where they divide into several ciliary branches (69%); (2) after a similar course, others branch to the eyeball from the superior side (29.3%); or (3) they reach the eyeball in an almost straight course along the optic nerve (1.7%). The fundamental characteristics of these three types of posterior ciliary artery pattern also exist in subhuman primates.     

A new look at the blood supply of the retro-ocular space three-dimensional analysis of the arterial pattern of the posterior ciliary artery

A study of the arterial architecture of the orbit, especially the ophthalmic artery and the course of the posterior ciliary artery in the retroocular space, was carried out in 198 cadavers by three-dimensional arteriographic analysis. The posterior ciliary arteries were classified into three types: lateral posterior ciliary, medial posterior ciliary, and accessory posterior ciliary arteries. Both the lateral and medial posterior ciliary arteries reach the eyeball in three ways: (1) they run antero-inferiorly in a winding course to the posterior margin of the eyeball, then shift upward vertically at a 60–90 degree angle and reach the eyeball, where they divide into several ciliary branches (69%); (2) after a similar course, others branch to the eyeball from the superior side (29.3%); or (3) they reach the eyeball in an almost straight course along the optic nerve (1.7%). The fundamental characteristics of these three types of posterior ciliary artery pattern also exist in subhuman primates. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The Stapedial Artery in the Mongolian Gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus)

The persistent stapedial artery is a component of the main arterial roads of the head in some animal groups (Fr?ckowiak: Roczn Akad Roln Poznań 336 (2003) 1–81). This type of vascularization occurs in the Mongolian gerbil, among others. The stapedial artery is common in a variety of forms in rodents. It has been described, for example, in Sciuridae, Muridae, Heteromyidae, Geomyidae, Splacidae, Cricetidae, Arvicolinae, and in genus Jaculus (Cox and Hautier: Evolution of the Rodents: Advances in phylogeny, Functional Morphology and Development, 2015). The aim of this study was the analysis of morphology, and of course, of the stapedial artery in this species. Investigations were performed on 10 animals of both sexes, weighing 50–60 g. After lethal anesthesia, the vascular system of every animal was filled with colored latex. After latex coagulation and decalcification of skull bones, fixed tissues were delicately prepared, and the head vascular system was exposed. The stapedial artery separates from the internal carotid artery, runs toward the auditory bulb and passes through the stapes. After the branching of the medial meningeal artery, the stapedial artery runs rostrally, forming its infraorbital branch. This branch, in the further course, gives the branch forming the short trunk of the ophthalmic artery, which supplies orbital structures (muscles, lacrimal gland, Harderian gland, and eyeball). The performed investigations revealed that the maintained infraorbital branch of the stapedial artery is the only source of arterial supply of the orbit in this species. Anat Rec, 301:1131–1137, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The cephalic arterial system in dogs, especially on the anastomoses between the intracranial and extracranial circulations

The cephalic arterial system with a special reference to the anastomoses between the extracranial and intracranial circulations was investigated by means of the corrosion casts of 30 dogs. We researched into the cephalic arterial system in dogs according to Bugge's theory. His theory is as follows: ontogenetically it is composed of 4 arterial systems (the internal and external carotids, vertebral and stapedial arteries), although these arteries trans-figure from the primitive basic pattern to the adult one with particular anastomoses between the branches in each of the species. The modification of this basic pattern occurs as a result of the obliteration or persistence of certain parts of the 4 original arterial systems when they are accompanied with various anastomoses. And he emphasizes that the mode of the appearance of each anastomosis is constant in each of the species. In this paper the obtained result is as follows. The stapedial artery that occurred in an early stage of embryonic period obliterates the proximal part except for the supraorbital, infraorbital and mandibular branches. Anastomosis X between the vertebral and external carotid arteries is formed in all the cases. Anastomosis Y between the internal carotid and ascending pharyngeal arteries is found at 20% on the right side and 30% on the left. Anastomosis a1 between the internal ophthalmic artery and each of the orbital arteries derived from the supraorbital branch is recognized at 93% on the right side and 97% on the left, and the other a1 between the internal ophthalmic artery and anastomosis a6 is formed in 7% on the right side and 3% on the left. Anastomosis a2 between the supraorbital and infraorbital branches is recognized in all the cases. Anastomosis a3 between the distal part of the external carotid artery and the proximal portion of the mandibular branch is found out in all. Anastomosis a4 between the distal portion of the internal carotid artery and the supraorbital branch or each of its distal branches in the orbita is recognized at 90% on both sides. Anastomosis a5 between the distal part of the internal carotid artery and the proximal part of the infraorbital branch or the middle meningeal artery is found at 97% on the right side and 87% on the left.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

A middle meningeal artery which arises from the internal carotid artery in which the first branchial artery participates.

A middle meningeal artery arising from the internal carotid artery was found in the right half of the head of an 85-year-old male cadaver during student dissection practice. It arose from the lateral aspect of the internal carotid artery in the carotid canal, arrived at the foramen lacerum after running forward. It then ran backward under the trigeminal ganglion and took the usual course after passing its posterior margin. On one hand, the maxillary artery did not issue the middle meningeal artery, gave off only a small twig supplying the lateral pterygoid muscle at the corresponding position. It was corroborated by the fact that the foramen spinosum was absent in this example. During usual development, the middle meningeal artery primarily springs from the supraorbital branch of the stapedial artery that arises from the dorsal part of the second branchial artery. Later, by the formation of the external carotid artery connecting with the common trunk of the infraorbital and mandibular branches (maxillomandibular division) of the stapedial artery and by the atrophy of the proximal part of it, the middle meningeal artery is finally supplied by the external carotid artery. But in this example, it is supposed that the middle meningeal artery arose from a more distal position of the internal carotid artery owing to the persistence of the anastomosis between the dorsal part of the first branchial artery and the supraorbital branch and the interruption of the connection between the supraorbital branch and maxillomandibular division of the stapedial artery.     

视觉假体微电极经眶外侧壁入路植入视神经的应用解剖

目的为经眶外侧壁入路植入视神经视觉假体微电极提供解剖学依据。方法选用经4%甲醛固定及动脉灌注红色乳胶的成人头湿性标本30例,观测眶内眼动脉及相关分支的起始、数量和外径与穿入视神经鞘膜动脉的起始、外径和穿入部位、视神经外径等参数。结果泪腺动脉1～2支,经外直肌上缘上方(3.83±1.43)mm前行。外直肌-视神经间隙的深度为(8.14±0.90)mm,内有睫状短神经5～10条,颞侧睫状后动脉1～2支。穿入视神经鞘膜动脉的方位,内侧20%,上方29.3%,外侧6.7%,下方44%。视网膜中央动脉主要经下方穿入视神经,穿入处距球后(0.85±0.28)cm,该处动脉外径为(0.40±0.09)mm。眼动脉斜跨视神经处远侧端距球后(1.44±0.22)cm。在球后与总腱环中点处,视神经左右径(3.96±0.35)mm,上下径(4.18±0.33)mm。结论宜经眶外侧壁入路植入视神经视觉假体微电极,植入微电极的部位以视神经球后4～8mm处的外侧较好,植入深度应小于1.5mm。     

Unusual example of a persistent stapedial artery in a human

A complete dissection of a persistent stapedial artery and its companion venous sinuses revealed several noteworthy features. The proximal portion of the stapedial artery stem was missing, and the entire stapedial system was supplied through an anastomosis between the occipital artery and the ramus posterior of the stapedial artery; a similar type of collateral supply occurs in some xenarthrans and bats. The ramus posterior is a component of the primitive eutherian stapedial system and one that has not been reported previously in a primate. Both the anterior and posterior divisions of the ramus superior were present. The posterior division is identified here for the first time in a primate. The anterior and posterior divisions were accompanied by the cranio-orbital and petrosquamous sinuses, respectively. These sinuses were incomplete and attenuated relative to the primitive eutherian condition.     

视网膜中央动脉和睫状后动脉的应用解剖

目的：为视神经鞘减压术和视神经周围区手术提供视网膜中央动脉和睫状后动脉的解剖学资料。方法：采用显微解剖学技术对60例成人视网膜中央动脉和睫状后动脉进行观察。结果：（1）视网膜中央动脉多发自眼动脉角（21．7％）,内侧睫状后动脉（20．0％）,眼动脉第一段（19．3）。（2）视网膜中央动脉发起后在视神经下方弯曲前行,其起始部在眶内视神经后1／3段与眼外直肌之间者占85．0％。（3）入鞘点在视神经的正下方者68．3％,内下方者占21．7％,外下方者占10．0％。结论：视网膜中央动脉及睫状后动脉的起点、走行变化较大,视神经鞘减压术和视神经周围区手术时应保护好这些动脉,以免引起视神经等结构缺血。     

彩色多普勒对高度近视眼的微循环血液动力学研究

目的 :研究高度近视眼的微循环血液动力学变化。方法 :应用彩色多普勒对 3 8只高度近视眼和 40只正常眼的眼动脉、睫状后短动脉、视网膜中央动脉的收缩期最大流速、阻力指数结果进行对比分析。结果 :高度近视眼组和正常组的血流参数比较 ,睫状后短动脉和视网膜中央动脉的收缩期最大流速和阻力指数均低于正常组有显著差异 ( P<0 .0 1)。眼动脉血流参数无明显差异 ( P>0 .0 5 )。结论 :高度近视眼的睫状后短动脉、视网膜中央动脉的血流参数均明显降低 ,彩色多普勒有可能应用于眼的微循环的血液动力学的病理改变形成机制的研究。     

颌面部血管的应用解剖

目的对人体颌面部血管进行巨微解剖及血管铸型,为临床皮瓣设计提供解剖学依据。方法①3例正常成人头颈部标本,经颈总动脉灌注红色乳胶,由浅入深逐层解剖,观测并记录颌面部血管的起始处外径、走行、分支、分布、吻合及伴行情况;②3例正常成人新鲜头颈部标本,加压注入红色过氯乙烯填充剂,经腐蚀后观察颌面部血管的来源、走行、分支、分布、吻合及伴行情况。结果颌面部的血供主要来源于面动脉、眼动脉、上颌动脉和颞浅动脉的分支。面动脉的分支主要供血面颊部、唇部、鼻部和颏区;眼动脉的分支主要供血眼球、眼球外肌、泪腺、鼻背和眼睑;上颌动脉的分支主要供血牙及牙龈、颊部、下颌关节、鼻腔、腭、咀嚼肌;颞浅动脉的分支主要供血腮腺、眼轮匝肌、上下睑外侧皮肤、颞部的软组织及面神经颧支、上颊支和颞支。结论颌面部动脉血管系统的解剖学资料,可为临床颌面部整形美容术提供了应用参考依据。     

以骨间后血管及其返支为蒂串连皮瓣设计的解剖学基础

目的 :为以骨间后血管及其返支为蒂串连皮瓣设计提供解剖学基础。方法 :在 40侧上肢标本上观测了骨间后动脉及其返支的来源、走行、分支、分布及吻合情况。结果 :前臂背侧下 2 / 3区的皮瓣由骨间后动脉供血 ,而上 1/ 3区由骨间后动脉返支 (或骨间返动脉 )供血。骨间后动脉起点外径 1.5mm ,管蒂长可达 15cm ,骨间后动脉返支起点外径 1.1mm ,血管蒂长 5cm。结论 :以骨间后动脉及其返支为蒂截取的串连皮瓣 ,向下可修复手部大面积组织缺损 ;向上可修复肘关节周围及臂下部大面积组织缺损     

The arterial supply to the digits of the forelimb in the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus)

The arterial supply of the digits of the forelimb of the Bactrian camel is described. The arteries supplying the digits were the palmar metacarpal and common palmar digital arteries III. The palmar metacarpal artery III was the continuation of the deep medial proximal metacarpal branch which was derived from the medial branch of the radial artery. It gave rise to a nutrient branch, medial branch, lateral branch and distal perforating palmar branch at the proximal end of the distal sixth of the cannon bone (fused third and fourth metacarpal bones). The common palmar digital artery III was the continuation of the median artery, which divided into medial and lateral branches. The medial branch of common palmar digital artery III which occasionally arose from the axial palmar proper digital artery III, after giving rise to the axial proximal proximal phalangeal branch, divided into the axial and abaxial palmar proper digital arteries III. The axial palmar proper digital artery III gave off the dorsoaxial distal proximal phalangeal, dorsoaxial proximal middle phalangeal, dorsoaxial distal middle phalangeal, palmoaxial middle phalangeal, palmoaxial distal phalangeal, dorsoaxial distal phalangeal branches, coronal artery and some digital tori branches. The abaxial palmar proper digital artery III gave rise to the abaxial proximal proximal phalangeal, dorsoabaxial distal proximal phalangeal, dorsoabaxial middle phalangeal, palmoabaxial middle phalangeal, palmoabaxial distal phalangeal, dorsoabaxial distal phalangeal branches, coronal artery and some digital tori branches. The lateral branch of the common palmar digital artery III in its origin, course, branching pattern and supply in the fourth digit was similar to the medial branch of common palmar digital artery III in the third digit.     

距骨的动脉供应及临床意义

在58侧不同年龄的新鲜下肢解剖,观察了距骨的血供,其中分布到距骨颈上面的滋养动脉主要来自跗内侧动脉和内踝前动脉。分布到距骨体的远端跗骨窦动脉来自跗外侧动脉,近端跗骨窦动脉主要来自外踝前动脉,三角支来自胫后动脉下段,并向前下方分出跗骨管动脉。     

小腿后部穿支的3D可视化研究与皮瓣设计

目的：运用血管造影及其数字化模型探讨小腿后部各区穿支间的关系,为穿支皮瓣的临床应用提供解剖学依据。方法：（1）8具新鲜成人整尸,采用改良的氧化铅配方行一次性全身动脉造影。其中2具行连续螺旋CT扫描,对小腿进行三维重建。（2）将小腿后部分为上、中、下3区,层次解剖并配合x线摄影,观测各区穿支的定位、直径、走行、分支及其相互之间的吻合状况。结果：小腿后部共有外径≥0．5mm穿支（13±2．3）支,平均外径（0．8±0．2）mm,平均供血面积（38±9．0）cm2。上区的胭动脉穿支位置恒定且较粗大,向下与中区的胫后动脉、腓动脉之穿支形成不减少口径的真性吻合,其单穿支供血面积高达（55±20）cm2;下区穿支较细,沿跟腱两侧呈链状分布,向上与中区的穿支吻合。结论：小腿后部为良好的穿支皮瓣供区,中区可切取穿支皮瓣游离移植,上区与下区可分别切取近端蒂与远端蒂穿支皮瓣。     

Formation of the pharyngeal arch arteries in the chick embryo. Observations of corrosion casts by scanning electron microscopy

An investigation was made of the formation of the pharyngeal arch arteries (PAAs) in developing chick embryos that ranged from Hamburger-Hamilton stage (st) 12 to st44 and 1-day-old chicks after hatching. Corrosion casts of the vasculature were made by injecting resin and examined by scanning electron microscopy. The relationship between the PAAs and associated organs was then demonstrated by computer-aided reconstruction. The ventral aorta connected with the dorsal aorta through a loop in front of the foregut at st12. We named this loop the primitive aortic arch to distinguish it from the true first PAA. The second PAA was found to form at st14 and the third PAA at st15, while the true first PAA to connect the dorsal and ventral aortae was found at st16. The aortic regions anterior to the first PAA then fused. By st19, the first PAA had disappeared and the fourth PAA had appeared. The fifth and sixth PAA were observed as a capillary plexus at st20 and st21. The fifth PAA consisted of a bypass of the sixth PAA during st22 to st25. The second PAA was observed to be very slender at st23 and to rupture by st25. At the same time, the proximal parts of the first and second PAAs and the ventral aorta changed into the primary external carotid artery (ECA) and gave off branches to the upper and lower jaws. Furthermore, the distal part of the second PAA remained to become the two branches of the dorsal aorta giving rise to the stapedial artery and the root of the secondary ECA. The latter connected with the primary ECA at st27 and took the place of the primary ECA later. The left fourth PAA and the individual carotid ducts became slender at st28 and disappeared by st34. The PAAs in the chick embryo at st34 were fundamentally the same as those in the 1-day-old chick after hatching.     

Central retinal artery originating from the temporal short posterior ciliary artery associated with intraorbital external-to-internal carotid arterial anastomoses

Although variations in the peripapillary division pattern of the central retinal artery (CRA) are common, variations in the origin of this artery are seldom reported in the literature. Herein, the authors report a variant of the CRA that originated from the temporal short posterior ciliary artery. Two intraorbital anastomoses were also noted between the internal and external carotid arterial systems: one through the lacrimal artery–middle meningeal artery to the ophthalmic artery and the other through supraorbital artery–recurrent meningeal artery to the ophthalmic artery. A brief review of CRA variations and potential clinical significances of the observed variant are discussed.     

第1跖趾关节及趾趾间关节的血供特点及其临床意义

目的：弄清第１跖趾关节和趾趾间关节的血供。方法：正常动脉灌注红色乳胶成人足２４只,观测第１跖趾关节和趾趾间关节的结构,各关节血管及神经的分布情况。结果：第１跖趾关节的动脉关节支来源于第１跖背动脉、第１跖底动脉以及它们的分支趾趾背动脉、趾底动脉和横动脉。它有背胫侧、背腓侧、跖胫侧、跖腓侧、关节前和关节后６部分关节支。趾趾间关节的动脉关节支来源于趾趾背动脉、趾底动脉和横动脉。它有背胫侧、背腓侧、跖胫侧、跖腓侧和关节后５部分关节支。结论：第１跖趾关节和趾趾间关节的血供丰富,但跖侧多于背侧,腓侧多于胫侧,故这些部位手术时,切口尽可能在背胫侧,以减少对关节血供的影响。     

Anomalous meningeal branches of the ophthalmic artery feeding meningiomas of the brain convexity

Summary Many anomalies may involve the ophthalmic and middle meningeal arteries, because of the close relationship of their development. The system of the ophthalmic artery may supply the dural convexity by the middle meningeal artery of ophthalmic origin, the anterior branch of the middle meningeal artery or an accessory meningeal artery. The development and the anatomic arrangement of these anomalous vessels are discussed. Three cases of meningiomas of the brain convexity supplied by anomalous meningeal arteries arising from the ophthalmic artery are described. In one case internal carotid angiography showed an anomalous anterior branch of the middle meningeal artery arising from the ophthalmic artery, whereas the maxillary artery provided only the posterior branch of the middle meningeal artery. In two cases the middle meningeal artery system was normal, but the ophthalmic artery provided an accessory meningeal artery supplying the meningioma. Whereas an ophthalmic origin of the middle meningeal artery is rather common, the angiographic finding of an accessory meningeal artery or an anterior branch of the middle meningeal artery arising from the ophthalmic arterial system is exceptional. The preoperative embolization of dural lesions supplied by anomalous meningeal vessels of ophthalmic origin is dangerous because of the risk of embolization into the ophthalmic circle.

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Branches méningées anormales de l'artère ophtalmique alimentant les méningiomes de la convexité

Résumé Un grand nombre d'anomalies touche les aa. ophtalmique et méningée moyenne en raison de leurs liens embryologiques. Le système de l'a. ophtalmique peut vasculariser la dure-mère de la convexité lorsqu'elle donne naissance à l'a. méningée moyenne ou à sa branche antérieure, ou à l'a. méningée accessoire. Le développement et la disposition anatomique de ces anomalies vasculaires sont discutés. Trois cas de méningiomes de la convexité, alimentés par des aa. méningées provenant de l'a. ophtalmique, sont décrits. Dans un cas, l'opacification de l'a. carotide interne montrait que la branche antérieure de l'a. méningée moyenne provenait de l'a. ophtalmique ; l'a. maxillaire ne donnait alors que sa branche postérieure et l'a. méningée moyenne. Dans deux cas, le système de l'a. méningée moyenne était normal, mais l'a. ophtalmique donnait une a. méningée accessoire vascularisant le méningiome. Alors que l'origine ophtalmique de l'a. méningée moyenne est relativement commune, la naissance à partir de l'a. ophtalmique de l'a. méningée accessoire ou de la branche antérieure de l'a. méningée moyenne est exceptionnellement décrite en angiographie. L'embolisation pré-opératoire des lésions durales alimentées par les vaisseaux méningés anormaux provenant de l'a. ophtalmique est dangereuse en raison des risques oculaires.